Whispers of Wisdom: Illuminating Africa’s Forgotten Islamic Scholars

Whispers of Wisdom: Illuminating Africa’s Forgotten Islamic Scholars

The arrival of Islam in Africa occurred during the 7th century CE, making it the first continent, after Southwestern Asia, to embrace the faith. Today, an impressive one-third of the global Muslim population finds its home on this majestic land. Ever since its emergence, Islam has been propelled forward by the faithful dedication of African Muslims, who have made their mark on the history of this noble religion. Yet, their invaluable contributions often remain unjustly overlooked. This article strives to illuminate some of the achievements of notable African Muslims who have profoundly shaped the course of Islam’s narrative in Africa. While the scholarly understanding of Islam in Africa during the Middle Ages, particularly concerning the esteemed empires of West Africa — Ghana, Mali, and Songhai — remains somewhat deficient, we must recognize the significant role played by African Muslims in previous eras.

Background

To commence our exploration, we should first investigate the origins of Islam’s presence across Africa before focusing on the distinct Islamic narrative of West Africa. By the middle of the seventh century CE, Islam had already been adopted in Africa’s northern territories, not long after the blessed Prophet Muhammad (peace be upon him) led his followers from Mecca to Medina on the Arabian Peninsula in 622 CE / 1 A.H. The remarkable conquest of Iberia by Islamic forces and the bold expansion of Arab military campaigns to regions as distant as the Indus River culminated in the creation of an expansive empire that covered three continents, all within a century following the demise of Prophet Muhammad (peace be upon him).

During the eighth and ninth centuries, Arab traders and travelers, followed by African scholars and theologians, went on a sacred mission of disseminating the Islamic faith along the eastern coast of Africa and into the western and central Sudan — aptly referred to as the Land of Black People. This undertaking stimulated the growth of spirited urban communities that nurtured the blossoming of Islamic culture. It is essential to comprehend Islam in Africa as an amalgamation of diverse histories, shaped by its adaptive and pragmatic approach to the multitude of cultural contexts it encountered.

The initial adherents to Islam were the Sudanese merchants, soon followed by a handful of enlightened rulers and courtiers, such as those in the Ghana Empire during the eleventh century and the Mali Empire during the thirteenth century. Regrettably, the majority of rural peasants remained untouched by the transformative power of Islam. However, in the eleventh century, the intervention of the Almoravid movement altered the course of conversion within the Ghana Empire and beyond. Led by a group of zealous Berber nomads, dedicated to their commitment to Islamic law, this movement invigorated the process of conversion. It is vital to note that the diffusion of Islam throughout the vast stretch of the African continent was neither instantaneous nor uniform, but rather followed a gradual and adaptable trajectory. Regrettably, our understanding of this historical period primarily relies on written records preserved by Arab sources, such as the accounts of renowned geographers like al-Bakri and Ibn Battuta.

West Africa

Now, moving on to explore Islam’s deep roots in West Africa, the influential role of clerical communities played a vital part in pre-colonial social and political structures. Contrary to popular belief, the pre-colonial history of Muslim Africa remains rich, deep, and brimming with significance. Knowledge of this remarkable region primarily emanates from Arabic sources, oral traditions, and archaeological evidence, with invaluable contributions from Arabic Medieval Inscriptions that skillfully dismantle the official narrative of the West African Middle Ages, as conveyed by the distinguished Timbuktu Chronicles.

Within the walls of certain capital cities, such as Ghana and Gao, the presence of Muslim merchants paved the way for the establishment of majestic mosques, which stood as timeless symbols of divine worship. During the reign of the legendary Malian king Mansa Musa (r. 1312–37 CE), the architect al-Sahili accompanied him on his sacred journey. Al-Sahili’s indestructible legacy is often credited with the inception of the iconic Sudano-Sahelian architectural style, which graced the majestic mosques dotting the West African landscape. Mansa Musa’s enlightened brother, Mansa Sulaiman, followed in his footsteps, fervently advocating for the construction of mosques and the flourishing of Islamic scholarship. On a side note, it should be noted that, with the advent of Islam, Africa witnessed the introduction of the art of writing and innovative techniques of measurement, bestowing upon its people newfound wisdom and intellectual prowess.

Initially a settlement of the Tuareg nomads, the gleaming metropolis of Timbuktu was soon enveloped by the expansive Mali Empire, later to be retaken by the Tuareg, and eventually absorbed into the Songhai Empire. Throughout the sixteenth century, the city’s intellectual scene was predominantly illuminated by scholars of Sudanese descent.

From the twelfth to the sixteenth centuries, West Africa was a bustling hub of academia and commerce, securing an esteemed standing across the Islamic world. This period marked the highest point in West African history. Particularly from the early fourteenth century until the Moroccan conquest, Timbuktu, along with the Sankore Madrasa, ascended as the scholarly heartlands of Africa. The Sankore University was esteemed on par with eminent educational bastions such as Al-Azhar in Egypt, Al-Qaurawan in Tunisia, Qurtuba in Spain, and Qarawiyyin in Morocco. These honored seats of learning played a decisive role in crafting the edifice of classical Muslim civilization, positioning West Africa as a pivotal religious and academic beacon within the broader Islamic community.

The records of this area are filled with a roster of prominent Islamic thinkers, poets, authors, and trailblazers, whose legacy continues to shine evidently in the region’s spiritual and cultural fabric. The scholarly giants of West Africa, representing a spectrum of intellectual traditions, forged an Islamic knowledge system that aligned with their distinct experiences. Their innovative educational methodologies, pedagogical strategies, and scholarly pursuits have had a lasting impact, reaching far beyond their geographic origins.

Elsewhere

Meanwhile, along the eastern coast of the continent, the pleasant convergence of Arabic vocabulary with Bantu languages birthed the exquisite Swahili language, highlighting the enduring cultural fusion facilitated by Islam’s presence. Conversely, for many sub-Saharan Africans, conversion to Islam often served as a means of safeguarding themselves from the appalling prospect of slavery, a thriving trade between Lake Chad and the Mediterranean. For the rulers of these lands, whose fervor for proselytization remained subdued, conversion retained a somewhat formal nature, a strategic gesture aimed at garnering political support from the Arab world and furthering prosperous commercial relationships.

Nevertheless, staunch resistance to Islam emerged from the Mossi and the Bamana, epitomized by the rise of the Ségou Kingdom. Over time, sub-Saharan Africans masterfully crafted their unique interpretation of Islam, an expression often referred to as African Islam, characterized by distinct brotherhoods and distinctive practices that reflected their rich cultural heritage.

Now, let us shift our focus to some of the remarkable African scholars from both bygone eras and the European colonial period. While they may not have been part of the so-called Golden Age of Islam, these noteworthy individuals made significant contributions to their respective regions’ golden ages through their invaluable scholarship and multifarious endeavors across various fields. Their names shine with distinction, and their legacies continue to inspire, reminding us of the intellectual prowess that graced Africa in centuries past.

1. Muhammad al-Kabari

Hailing from fifteenth-century Timbuktu, this eminent individual set off on a sacred quest to procure a ram for the occasion of Eid al-Adha, the momentous 10th day of the month of Dhul-Hijjah in the Islamic calendar. As chronicled in the Tarikh al-Sudan, this nobleman, known as modibbo Muhammad al-Kabari, crossed a branch of the Niger River, seemingly treading upon its very surface. Astonishingly, his pupil, struck by the same impulse, followed suit. However, as fate would have it, the pupil found himself engulfed by the river’s depths, while the Sheikh had already emerged unscathed on the opposite shore. Extending a compassionate hand, the Sheikh implored, “What compelled you to mimic my actions?” To which the pupil, undeterred, responded, “Upon witnessing your miraculous feat, I sought to emulate it.” The wise Sheikh, with sagacity in his voice, retorted, “How can you equate your foot with one that has never trodden the path of disobedience to God?”

Muhammad al-Kabari, this embodiment of sanctity, was not merely a paragon of righteousness and piety; he also occupied esteemed positions as a renowned scholar and qadi, shaping the very foundations of Timbuktu’s intellectual legacy during its peak. Among the select few remembered as the Sheikh al-Shuyukh, the master of masters, Muhammad al-Kabari specialized in the teachings of Maliki fiqh, a prominent school of jurisprudence. Furthermore, he authored what is believed to be the oldest surviving work penned by a scholar from West Africa: the wondrous Bustan al-Fawa’id wal-Manafi‘, or the Garden of the Useful and Beneficent.

The Bustan primarily consists of fawa’id, singularly defined as “utility” in Arabic. These multifarious texts, often originating from the Qur’an, were employed to craft enchantments, supplications, amulets, and incantations. While Muhammad al-Kabari’s eminence is undisputed, he represents but one luminary amid the grand landscape of late medieval West Africa, where numerous Muslim scholars flourished following the birth of Islam. Curiously, recent scholarly attention on this subject remains scarce, except for the late Lamin Sanneh’s work, Beyond Jihad, where he revisits his earlier investigations into West African clericalism.

One may wonder, given the strong influence these local scholars wielded within the timelines of medieval West African empires, why have they not garnered greater interest in recent years? Primarily, this oversight can be attributed to the persistent dominance of an antiquated theory concerning the “Islamization” of West Africa, initially postulated by Spencer J. Trimingham and subsequently revised by Humphrey J. Fisher and Nehemia Levtzion. These ill-informed accounts have perpetuated the notion that during the Middle Ages, most Muslim communities in West Africa comprised foreign elements. Yet, an examination of al-Bakri’s eleventh-century opus, Kitab al-Masalik wal-Mamalik (The Book of Routes and Realms), reveals a starkly different reality. Nowhere within its pages does al-Bakri insinuate the presence of foreign Muslims within the Empire of Ghana. On the contrary, the text juxtaposes Muslims who embraced the faith with those adhering to the king’s religion, indicating, as Ware elucidates, “the presence of Ghanaian individuals among the Muslims.”

2. Ahmad Baba al-Timbukti

Ahmad Baba al-Timbukti, whose full name was Abu al-Abbas Ahmad ibn Ahmad ibn Ahmad ibn Umar ibn Muhammad Aqit al-Takruri Al-Massufi al-Timbukti, was another distinguished figure in the realm once referred to as the Western Sudan. Born in Araouane on October 26, 1556 CE, to the Sanhaja Berber Aqit family, he would later become renowned as a writer, scholar, and a catalyst for political discourse. His intellectual contributions were prolific, spanning over 40 books.

At a young age, Ahmad Baba relocated to Timbuktu, where he received his education under the guidance of his father, Ahmad ibn al-Hajj Ahmad ibn ‘Umar ibn Muhammad Aqit, and the esteemed scholar Mohammed Bagayogo. Little is known about his activities until 1594 when he was forcibly deported to Morocco, accused of sedition during the Moroccan invasion of Songhai. He resided in Fez until the passing of Ahmad al-Mansur. Under the reign of Ahmad al-Mansur’s successor, Zaydan An-Nasser, all exiles were granted permission to return to their homeland. On April 22, 1608, Ahmad Baba finally arrived back in Timbuktu.

During his time in Morocco, Ahmad Baba produced a significant body of work, including a biography of Muhammad Abd al-Karim al-Maghili, a scholar and jurist whose contributions played a crucial role in shaping the region’s traditional religious law. The surviving works of Ahmad Baba remain invaluable sources for studying al-Maghili and the subsequent generation that followed. Such scholarly efforts solidified Ahmad Baba’s reputation as the Mujjadid of his era who revitalized Islamic thought and practice.

In 1615, Ahmad Baba participated in discussions alongside other Muslim scholars on the pressing issue of slavery, driven by the desire to safeguard Muslims from enslavement. He made notable contributions to the understanding of ethnicity in West Africa, offering early insights into the concept. Ahmad Baba was an ardent advocate for the abolition of racial slavery and vehemently criticized the association of Black Africans with the institution of slavery. He particularly denounced the adoption of the narrative of the “Curse of Ham,” found in the Book of Genesis, by certain Muslims. His efforts aimed to challenge prevailing misconceptions and promote a more inclusive and egalitarian society.

3. Muhammad Ibn Muhammad Al-Fulani Al-Kishwani

In the early 18th century, a polymath of extraordinary talents emerged from Katsina, a city in present-day Northern Nigeria. Muhammad Ibn Muhammad Al-Fulani Al-Kishwani, a mathematician, astronomer, mystic, and astrologer, charmed the scholarly circles of his time. While the exact year of his birth remains a subject of debate, his contributions are undeniable.

Muhammad dedicated his efforts to two distinct pursuits: revolutionizing the creation of magic squares and diligently practicing the five pillars of Islam. His diverse expertise in astronomy, mathematics, mysticism, and astrology served him well in his prolific career. As a member of the Fulani people, Muhammad belonged to one of the first groups in West Africa to embrace Islam. The Fulani, historically nomadic herders and traders, have exerted substantial influence in politics and economics across the region. Renowned for their independence and competitive spirit, they utilized Islam as a unifying force and a catalyst for expanding their territories in present-day Nigeria.

Due to his unswerving commitment to his faith, Muhammad spent a considerable portion of his life fulfilling his duties as a devout Muslim in the Middle East. His deep devotion is reflected in his wise words: “Work in secret and privacy. The letters are in God’s safekeeping. God’s power resides in His names and secrets, and if you enter His treasury, you are in God’s sanctuary. Therefore, do not indiscriminately divulge His secrets.” This statement underscores the essence of the first pillar of Islam, emphasizing the sacredness of personal inspiration, to be shared only with those deemed worthy. It reveals Muhammad’s independent nature and his encouragement for his students to follow a similar path.

Having completed the fifth pillar of Islam, the pilgrimage to Mecca, Muhammad then ventured to Egypt. While in Cairo, he had the opportunity to study at the prestigious Gobarau Minaret in Katsina. Upon his return from Hajj, he was honored with an invitation to join the esteemed circle of scholars established by the renowned Somali scholar Hasan al-Jabarti. During his residency in Cairo, Muhammad authored a treatise titled Bahjat al-Afaq wa-Idah al-Labs wal-Ighlaq-fi ‘Ilm al-Huruf wal-Awaq (A Treatise on the Magical Use of the Letters of the Alphabet). This scholarly manuscript expounded on the mathematical procedures for constructing magic squares up to the order of 11. In an uplifting message to readers, he wrote, “Do not yield to discouragement, for it is a mark of ignorance and contrary to the principles of this art. Like a devoted lover, success can only be attained through unwavering perseverance.”

Muhammad Ibn Muhammad Al-Fulani Al-Kishwani breathed his last in Cairo, Egypt in 1741 at the age of 42, leaving behind a legacy of intellectual brilliance and a strong devotion to knowledge and faith.

4. Nana Asmaʼu

Nana Asmaʼu, also known as Asmaʾu bint Shehu Usman dan Fodiyo, was an extraordinary individual who graced the world from 1793 to 1864. Born into nobility as a Fula princess, she possessed a multifaceted identity as a poet, educator, and daughter of Usman dan Fodio (1754–1817), the visionary behind the establishment of the Sokoto Caliphate. Nana Asmaʼu’s name was bestowed upon her in honor of Asmaʾ bint Abi Bakr, a revered Companion of the Prophet Muhammad, peace be upon him.

During her formative years, Nana Asmaʼu bore witness to the Fulani War (1804–1808), a significant jihad campaign that laid the foundations for the influential Sokoto Caliphate — an Islamic empire. As the daughter of the Caliphate’s founder, Usman dan Fodio, and the half-sister of its second Sultan, Muhammed Bello (died 1837), she outlived many of the Caliphate’s founding generation and became a crucial source of guidance for subsequent rulers. The prominence of the Caliph’s family, including female relatives, soared from 1805 onward, with Nana Asmaʼu coming out as the foremost figure among them. Her sisters, Maryam and Fatima, as well as the Caliph’s wives Aisha and Hawwaʾu, also played significant literary and political roles within the nascent state.

In alignment with her father’s teachings, Nana Asmaʼu received a comprehensive education in tafsir, the study of the Qur’an, and placed great emphasis on universal education. As devout followers of the Qadiriyya Sufi order, dan Fodio and his disciples emphasized the dissemination of knowledge, particularly the exemplary life of the Prophet Muhammad, peace be upon him. They believed that learning without teaching was futile and devoid of purpose. Hence, Nana Asmaʼu dedicated herself to the education of women, driven by a deep commitment to this cause. Like many of her esteemed family members, she became an incredibly productive and inventive author, possessing a rich education in the classics of the Arab and Classical worlds and a fluent command of four languages: Arabic, Fula, Hausa, and Tamacheq Tuareg.

Nana Asmaʼu’s reputation as a preeminent scholar rose throughout the most influential Muslim state in West Africa, allowing her to engage in widespread correspondence. She witnessed numerous conflicts of the Fulani War and chronicled her experiences in the prose narrative titled Wakar Gewaye or The Song of Wandering. As the Sokoto Caliphate commenced as a revolutionary movement, both cultural and religious in nature, the writings of its leaders held immense significance, serving as touchstones against which subsequent generations, both rulers and subjects, could evaluate their society.

Upon her brother’s ascension to the Caliphate, Nana Asmaʼu became a trusted advisor, and her writings included instructions to governors and engaging in debates with scholars from foreign lands. With more than 60 surviving works penned over a span of 40 years, she left behind a rich legacy of poetry in Arabic, Fula, and Hausa — all written in the Arabic script. While some of her compositions were historical narratives, others took the form of elegies, laments, and admonitions. Her poems of guidance became instrumental in imparting the foundational principles of the Caliphate.

Nana Asmaʼu also enjoyed a close collaboration with Muhammed Bello, the second Caliph, expanding upon dan Fodio’s emphasis on women leaders and women’s rights within the framework of Sunnah and Islamic law. Notably, her surviving written works revolved around Islamic education. For a significant portion of her adult life, she assumed responsibility for the religious education of women. Commencing around 1830, she established a network of female teachers known as jajiss, who traveled extensively across the Caliphate, educating women in the comfort of their own homes.

These jajiss utilized the writings of Nana Asmaʼu and other Sufi scholars, often employing recited mnemonics and poetry, to educate a cohort of learned women known as the ƴan-taru, or “those who congregate together, the sisterhood.” As a symbolic gesture, Nana Asmaʼu bestowed upon each jaji a malfa — a hat and traditional ceremonial emblem reminiscent of the Hausa animist priestesses in Gobir — prettified with a red turban. Through this educational initiative, she sought not only to assimilate newly conquered pagan captives into the Muslim ruling class but also to extend educational opportunities to the impoverished and rural segments of society. These trained teachers became harbingers of the new state, ambassadors of the new order, and representatives of Islamic learning even beyond women’s communities.

Nana Asmaʼu’s lasting legacy latches itself in the hearts and minds of the people of northern Nigeria, where she is admired as an icon of education and female independence within the framework of Islam. Some regard her as a precursor to modern feminism in Africa, while others celebrate her as an exemplar of the boundless possibilities that exist for women under the embrace of Islam.

5. Sheikh Ahmadou Bamba

In the face of the insidious grip of French colonialism, one extraordinary man stood tall, unbending in his defiance. Born in Senegal in 1853, Sheikh Ahmadou Bamba was thrust into a world marred by war, instability, and the horrors of slavery under brutal French occupation. Known to his followers as Khadim al-Rasul (The Servant of the Messenger) and Serigne Touba (Sheikh of Tuubaa), Sheikh Bamba chose a path of resistance that rejected violence and embraced the pen as his weapon of choice. With a deep scholarly background, he drew upon the teachings of the Qur’an and the Sunnah of the Prophet Muhammad, peace be upon him, to propagate the message of coexistence.

Through his profound insights, Sheikh Bamba composed poems and treatises on topics ranging from meditation and rituals to diligent work and Qur’anic study. His words, loaded with sincerity and truth, posed a genuine threat to the despicable colonizers, who grew increasingly wary of his growing influence. Consequently, they condemned him to a total of 33 years in exile. The imperialist policies of France, prevalent since the beginning of the 19th century, aimed to suppress armed resistance movements in Senegal and impose Christianization and cultural assimilation upon the new colony. As a result, Muslim spiritual leaders who dared to speak out against the colonial government faced exile or even elimination. For the alleged “crime” of persistently preaching Islam, Ahmadou Bamba endured years of deprivation and trials.

The majority of other Muslim scholars, however, faced severe persecution and violence in various parts of West Africa. One example is the tragic event that took place in Chad in 1917, where France gathered 400 Muslim scholars and executed them using machetes. This incident was just one among numerous acts of brutality committed during the era of French colonialism in Africa. Such actions were aimed at eliminating influential Muslim figures and establishing the dominance of the Francophone culture throughout the region.

Historically, Muslim scholars played a significant role in impeding foreign colonizers from exerting control over trade and politics through language barriers. Their knowledge and influence posed obstacles to the agendas of these colonizers. However, with the targeted massacres of the scholars, the Francophone culture gained prominence. This shift made it easier for the French to manipulate trade and engage in unsavory political practices. While there is much more to explore and discuss on this topic, we will go back to the subject at hand.

Exiled for seven years in Gabon, followed by five years in Mauritania, and subsequently placed under house arrest in Diourbel, Senegal for fifteen years, Sheikh Bamba remained purposeful in his defense of the Islamic message until his passing in 1927. Despite the trials and tribulations he endured, Sheikh Bamba would eventually return to his homeland, where he established a self-sufficient city that sought to emulate the principles of Medina during the time of Prophet Muhammad, peace be upon him. In 1883, he founded the Mouride brotherhood, with its capital situated in the newly established city of Touba, Senegal. Today, Touba is home to sub-Saharan Africa’s largest mosque.

Ahmadou Bamba’s teachings emphasized the virtues of pacifism, diligence, and exemplary conduct, encapsulated by the concept of jihadul nafs, a personal struggle against negative inclinations. As an ascetic marabout, he penned treatises on meditation, rituals, work, and Qur’anic study, but it is his unhesitating emphasis on the value of industriousness that is most celebrated. Tragically, Sheikh Bamba passed away without witnessing the departure of the French oppressors from his beloved land.

Conclusion

As we conclude this glimpse into the lives of remarkable African scholars, it is essential to acknowledge that there are countless others whose contributions remain obscured, primarily due to limited accessible information in Arabic and the historical marginalization imposed by colonizers. The vast heritage of African intellectuals awaits rediscovery and celebration, an effort that rests upon Africans themselves to illuminate their rich history, which has been overshadowed for far too long.

All images were sourced from Google Images.