Toxicology — A Vivid History

Verily, the study of toxicology has a rich and storied history, with early Islamic scholars holding a most eminent place within its histories. The very terminology of the field, with words such as toxin and bezoar, harkens back to the early days of Islam, emphasizing the importance of this knowledge during a time of flourishing civilizations. Ancient scholars such as Galen and Dioscorides were renowned for their extensive knowledge of the subject, and their works have been widely attributed as authoritative sources on the topic — that is, until Muslim toxicologists improved our knowledge to a much greater extent than the ancients did.

In lands where Islam was prominent, many prominent scribes also dipped their toes into the domain of poisons and their remedies. Snakes, dog bites, and the venom of scorpions, spiders, and other venomous creatures were of great concern, for they posed a constant threat to the health and well-being of the masses. Moreover, the poisonous properties of minerals and plants were widely known, and criminal poisoning was a scourge that plagued the land, a practice that was prohibited by the holy scriptures of Judaism, Christianity, and Islam.

It was in the Age of Enlightenment, during the golden era of Arabic medicine, that the subject of poisons gained even more prominence. Notable medical encyclopedias, such as al-Qānūn fīl-Ṭibb by the great physician Avicenna and Kitāb al-Mukhtārāt fīl-Ṭibb by ibn Hubal, contained chapters devoted solely to this subject. The authors of materia medica books also paid close attention to the topic of poisons, and the famous Andalusian botanist, ibn al-Bayṭar, wrote an extensive treatise on simple drugs, including a section on botanical poisons and their treatments.

Renowned scholars such as Ibn Uthal, Jaber-ibn-Hayyan, Ibn Wahshiyya, and Imad al-Din Shirazi, were all masters in the art of toxicology, with their works offering powerful insight into the nature of poisons and their antidotes. These learned men delved into many aspects of the subject, including the composition and identification of toxins, methods of detoxification, the pharmacology and pharmacokinetics of poison, and even the ethical considerations surrounding their use. They also possessed a keen understanding of the importance of preventing poisonings, and their writings offer a rich trove of information on the use of pharmacological remedies and antidotes for a wide range of afflictions, from the bite of venomous creatures to scabies and oleander poisoning.

By examining the treatises and manuscripts of these medieval Islamic toxicologists, we may yet discover new methods of prevention and treatment, and forge a path toward a brighter and safer future.

Shanaq

Shānāq (aka Chanakya) was a man of great wisdom and was widely known for his expertise in toxicology; his knowledge was not limited to just poisons, for he also wrote several other works that shed light on various fields of study. He wrote Kitab al-Baytarah (On Veterinary Medicine), providing valuable insight into the care and treatment of animals. He also dived into the study of astrology, authoring Kitab fī ‘Ilm al-Nujūm (On Astrology). Furthermore, he wrote Kitab Muntakhal al-Jawhar (Sifted Jewels), a work dedicated to an Indian king of that age, Ibn Qamāniṣ al-Hindī (his name in Arabic).

However, it was Kitāb as-Sumūm (On Poisons) that truly illuminated the field of toxicology in the early days of Arabic civilization. This work was originally written in Sanskrit and then translated into Farsi by Mankah al-Hindī; it was then transcribed further in Farsi by al-Balkhi before being expounded to Yahya ibn Khalid ibn Barmak. The work was then deemed worthy of being translated into Arabic and was presented to the caliph al-Ma’mūn by his client, al-‘Abbās ibn Sa’īd al-Jawharī. Al-‘Abbās was also responsible for reading the book aloud to al-Ma’mūn, thus ensuring its dissemination among the Muslims back then.

Moreover, this text discussed the detection of poisons through sight, touch, taste, and the symptoms they cause. It also provided descriptions of poisoned drinks, foods, clothes, carpets, beds, skin lotions, eye salves, and narcotics, as well as universal antidotes. This valuable text was so highly prized that kings guarded it jealously, keeping it locked away in their treasure cabinets, hidden from all but their most trusted advisors.

Therefore, it can be said with certainty that Shānāq was a giant in the field of toxicology, as important to the history of Arabic medicine as Dioscorides was to materia medica.

Jabir ibn Hayyan

One of the earliest and most notable contributions to the field of poisons came from the esteemed chemist and physician Jābir ibn Hayyān, whom we talked about earlier. He wrote the monumental work Kitāb as-Sumūm (Book of Poisons), which was dedicated solely to the subject of poisons and their antidotes. In his book, Jābir meticulously categorized poisons according to their types, natural origins, modes of action, dosages, methods of administration, choice of drugs, and the targeted organ that was affected by each poison. The book was highly regarded by many, including the Nabataean agriculturalist and toxicologist, ibn Wahshiyyah (d. 930 CE) who deemed it a “great work… a wonder”.

Ibn al-Mubarak

However, the most comprehensive and in-depth text on the topic of toxicology was the Kitāb al-Munqith min al-Halakah fī Daf Madhārr al-Sumūm al-Muhlikah (The Savior from Demise and on Withstanding the Harms of Deadly Poisons, written by ibn al-Mubārak (Al-Ḥasanibn Abī Thaʿlab ibn al-Mubārak). In this remarkable work, ibn al-Mubārak warns that poisoning was a common method used to harm or kill kings and noblemen, and thus he set out to provide a comprehensive guide for those who sought to avoid its dangers. The book was written in three essays, each dealing with different aspects of toxicology and its treatments. This work provided a complete and comprehensive understanding of the potential causes of poisoning. Ibn al-Mubarak delved into all aspects of toxic food, including fruits, vegetables, toxic flowers, and mineral poisons, as well as animals with toxic bites, and their possible antidotes.

Although his exact life span remains uncertain, it is estimated that he flourished around the 11th century CE. Details about ibn al-Mubarak’s biography are quite scarce, with his book continuing to be a highly sought-after and widely studied text in the field of toxicology. Copies of the manuscript are available in various libraries across the world, including the Library of Congress and the Chester Beatty Library, although a critical edition of the text remains unpublished to this day.

In the first essay of this book, ibn al-Mubārak discusses the symptoms of poisoning in food and drink, which were often used to harm or kill people. He divides his treatise according to the different kinds of food, such as meat, sweets, cheese, fruits, and aromatic plants, and provides recipes for antidotes to each type of poison. He also outlines the symptoms that indicate which type of poison has been used and provides guidance on how to avoid its damage.

The second essay presents the symptoms that indicate that a person has been poisoned by simple poisons, such as those found in the gallbladder of leopards, the venom of snakes and scorpions, and the blood of certain animals, as well as plants like wolf’s bane, cowbane, all kinds of henbane, and devil’s trumpet, and minerals such as gold, silver, lead, iron, and mercury. Ibn al-Mubārak also provides tests to determine the reality of each poison and describes its treatment and antidotes.

The third essay, which is arguably the most interesting part of the book, provides a comprehensive guide to the different types of toxic snakes, categorized by the months in a year. He also discusses other toxic animals such as scorpions, bees, and ants.

It is also worth mentioning that ibn al-Mubārak states that his main source for this work came from an Indian book, which is believed to be the previously-mentioned book authored by Shānāq (Chanakya). Nevertheless, through his exceptional book, ibn al-Mubārak solidified the Arabic civilization’s position as a leader in the field of toxicology and medicine, and it remains a timeless treasure for all those who seek to deepen their understanding of this intriguing subject.

Imad al-Din Shirazi

Last, but not least, allow me to regale to you the story of ‘Imad al-Din Maẖmud ibn Masʽud Shirazi, a renowned physician from the city of Shiraz in 16th-century Iran. Son of a physician, he honed his medical knowledge under the tutelage of his father before imparting his wisdom to his own pupils.

In his early days of practice, he served the governor of Shirvan, but a misstep incurred the wrath of the governor and resulted in a fateful punishment — spending a bitterly cold night in the elements. On that fateful night, ‘Imad al-Din resorted to the use of opium and, although he recovered from the cold, he suffered from a tremble for the rest of his life. However, this experience solidified his belief in the therapeutic value of opium and led him to pen a treatise in Farsi on the subject. Copies of this work can be found in the National Library of Medicine and the Library of Ibn Sina Academy of Medieval Medicine and Sciences.

In addition to his treatise on opium, ‘Imad al-Din also wrote extensively on other medical subjects. He composed the first Farsi-language monograph on syphilis and advocated for the use of China root in treatment, as well as contributing to the field of anatomy with his own treatise.

The learned physician also left a rich legacy in the realm of toxicology, with works such as Resale al Sammie, Marefat al Samum, and Resale dar Samum. In the latter, he delves into the definition of food, drug, and poison, and offers insight into the signs, symptoms, and treatment of poisoning. It is in this work where he makes a remarkable observation, suggesting the existence of natural drugs that are toxicants and that animals instinctively avoid. A concept that would lay the foundations for the development of insect repellants and the field of zoo pharmacognosy.

To wrap up this article, we saw how the study of toxicology in the early Muslim Golden era was greatly influenced by notable Indian sources, as exemplified by Shānāq’s works. Through the efforts of scholars like Jābir ibn Hayyān and ibn Wahshiyyah, the discipline of toxicology was further developed, until it was elevated to a distinct branch of medical science, culminating in the remarkable achievement of ibn al-Mubārak’s Kitāb al-Munqidh min al-Halakah.

All images were taken from Google Images.