The Lion of Carthage

Within the records of ancient military history, a figure of matchless distinction arises in one’s mind — the Lion of Carthage, Hannibal Barca. Son of Hamilcar, older brother of Mago and Hasdrubal, and husband of Imilce, Hannibal symbolized the epitome of a masterful military strategist.

Hannibal’s story is one resplendent with epic encounters, audacious maneuvers, and the utter decimation of entire legions, as he fearlessly led his armies against the Roman Empire. In the face of seemingly insurmountable odds, his determination and unbreakable resilience were nothing short of astonishing.

His campaign brimmed with brilliant tactics, wherein he defied expectations and exploited every advantage with unequaled finesse. Despite being outmatched and outnumbered, his cunning and ingenuity enabled him to outwit and outmaneuver his most loathed adversaries. This triumphant display of military prowess earned him the respect and admiration of his loyal troops while instilling fear and wonder in the hearts of his enemies.

The Carthaginian Sign of Tanit (or Tinnit)

Hannibal’s lasting legacy and my deep admiration for him stem from his remarkable capacity to confront a hegemonic tyrant, similar to the aspirations harbored by many of us today (in our desire to witness the toppling of the double-standard “rules-based world order”).

In a world where dominion and supremacy often hinge upon technological prowess and material wealth, it is all too easy to overlook the significance of fortitude, firm resolve, and a mighty spirit to champion righteousness over wrongdoing. Hannibal represented the very notion that truth might emanate from within, and that even when confronted with seemingly insurmountable odds, a solitary individual can effectuate substantial change.

As we retrospectively reflect upon the existence and heritage of this extraordinary warrior and statesman, let us be mindful that within our ostensibly “technologically advanced era,” there exist invaluable insights to be gleaned from the pages of history. And so, the story of the Lion of Carthage begins…

The Lion of Carthage — The Man

To those of you that haven’t come across this name before (seriously?), Hannibal Barca was a Carthaginian general and statesman who is best known for his audacious crossing of the Alps during the Second Punic War, in which he led a large army of mercenaries and elephants over the mountain range and into Italy to surprise and attack the Roman Republic. The campaign, which began in 218 BCE, is considered one of the greatest military feats of all time, and military leaders and historians still study it to this day.

Now, as a person, scant information directly illuminates Hannibal’s personal life and demeanor. Occasionally, Roman and pro-Roman chroniclers extend favorable remarks toward Hannibal, yet predominantly they distort and magnify traits of his character, which by necessity bore a stern countenance in that era. However, evidence suggests that Hannibal possessed a shrewd and assured mindset. He adeptly exploited the terrain to his advantage, mastering the art of ambushes, orchestrating hidden assaults on the enemy’s flanks, conducting nocturnal maneuvers, deceiving adversaries, evading entrapment, encircling foes, leveraging superior cavalry, and ingeniously steering his way out of predicaments across the landscapes of Iberia, Gaul, and Italy.

Moreover, he displayed an enhanced understanding of psychology, thoroughly scrutinizing the inclinations of opposing commanders and adroitly leveraging this intelligence to his advantage on the battlefield.

On the intellectual front, historical records reveal that he surrounded himself with literati such as Silenus and the Spartan historian Sosylus, who served as his tutor in Greek, a tongue in which Hannibal conversed with fluency. He even composed a historical narrative in Greek for the Rhodians detailing the exploits of Cn. Manlius Vulso. Furthermore, Hannibal exhibited proficiency in Punic and conceivably other languages as well.

As a military commander, he was most famously known for his audacity and boldness, often taking risks and devising unconventional tactics to surprise and defeat his enemies — that was evident in each and every one of his battles.

Hannibal, whose given name was Hanniba’al, meaning “grace of Ba’al” in Carthaginian, was a tribute to the (idolatrized) god Ba’al who was worshipped by the ancient Carthaginians. However, his surname Barca, may not have been his actual surname. In fact, his contemporaries would have referred to him as “Hannibal, son of Hamilcar.” The Barca surname was first recorded by his father Hamilcar, but it could have been a nickname meaning “thunderbolt” or “lightning” — a fitting title for someone who struck fear into the hearts of the Romans. Nevertheless, the name Barca was passed down to Hannibal and his brothers, and their family came to be known as the Barcids. Today, the word Barq also refers to thunderbolt or lightning in the Arabic language.

When Hannibal was still a young boy, his father set out to conquer new territories in what is now Spain, as part of Carthage’s efforts to rebuild its empire. The historian Polybius wrote that Hannibal, eager to join his father, swore an oath to never be a friend of Rome. According to some accounts, this oath was made under dramatic circumstances, with Hamilcar holding Hannibal over a fire as he swore the oath. Another (unreliable) source claims that this oath was taken while dangling young Hannibal at the edge of a cliff.

The War

The Second Punic War, which lasted from 218 to 201 BCE, was a major conflict between Carthage and Rome that ultimately resulted in the defeat of Carthage and the rise of Rome as the dominant power in the Western Mediterranean. The war began after Rome, alarmed by the growing power and expansion of Carthage in the region, declared war on the Carthaginian Republic by breaking a peace treaty. In the early years of the war, the Roman Republic had the upper hand, with their armies scoring several victories against Carthage in Iberia.

However, Carthage still had a strong and capable commander in Hannibal, who was determined to turn the tide of the war in his country’s favor.

To do this, Hannibal devised a bold plan to lead a large army of mercenaries and elephants over the Alps and into Italy, where he would surprise and attack the Roman Republic from the north. The Alps, which at the time were considered an impassable barrier, were a colossal challenge, but Hannibal was determined to overcome them.

The Warriors

Hannibal’s expedition to Italy during the Second Punic War was a carefully planned and ambitious undertaking, with an incredibly diverse array of soldiers accompanying him. His troops included some of the best fighters, such as heavy cavalry, light infantry, and even elephants. These versatile troops were key to Hannibal’s success and helped him to gain several victories during the war. Their presence was essential for his strategic victories, as their varied skills and abilities allowed them to outmaneuver and overpower their opponents:

• One of the most notable elements of Hannibal’s army was his heavy cavalry. These were well-trained and equipped horsemen who were used to charge into battle and break enemy lines. They were essential in helping Hannibal gain mobility and strike quickly against the Romans.
• Hannibal’s light infantry and javelin throwers also played an important role in his army. These soldiers were typically equipped with a small shield and several javelins, which they used to harass and wear down enemy formations before closing in for close combat.
• Another key component of Hannibal’s army was his Numidian cavalry. While the Carthaginian cavalry was a well-trained, heavy cavalry, the Numidian cavalry was light, and they were used for reconnaissance and rapid attacks. They were exceptional at raiding, skirmishing, and pursuing the defeated enemy.
• Another group of troops, which we briefly mentioned before, were the elephants, which were used as shock troops to intimidate and disorganize the enemy. They were particularly useful in breaking through enemy lines and causing panic in the ranks of the enemy soldiers. The elephants also functioned as a psychological weapon, as the Romans weren’t exactly accustomed to fighting these war beasts (aside from what they had learned during the Pyrrhic War). I’ll talk a bit more about them shortly thereafter.

In addition to these specialized troops, Hannibal also had a large number of mercenaries and conscripts in his army. These soldiers were recruited from different tribes and regions and included Gauls, Iberians, and even some Celts. They were used to fill out the ranks of the army and were often used to hold the line and absorb the brunt of the enemy’s attacks.

Overall, Hannibal’s army was a diverse and capable force, made up of a mix of specialized soldiers and well-trained mercenaries and conscripts. This allowed him to adapt to different situations and terrains and gave him the flexibility to outmaneuver and defeat his enemies in battle.

The Elephants

The use of elephants in Hannibal’s expedition to Italy was a significant part of his strategy, but it also presented several challenges. First and foremost, the hurdle of transporting them from North Africa to Iberia. The second (and main) challenge was getting the elephants over the Alps. The elephants (37 of them) were not accustomed to the cold climate and the steep terrain, and many of them died or were injured during the crossing. Additionally, the journey over the Alps was long and grueling, and the elephants had to be led by soldiers on foot, which added to the strain on the animals.

Another challenge was finding enough food and water for the elephants during the journey. Elephants require a lot of food and water to survive, and finding enough resources to sustain them while they were on the move was difficult.

Furthermore, elephants were very valuable animals, and losing them in battle could be a significant blow to the army. Elephants were not only very costly to acquire but also to maintain, the losses of them could be detrimental to the campaign. In fact, many of the elephants died in battle, either from wounds sustained in combat or from exhaustion.

It’s said that by the time Hannibal reached the Po Valley of Italy, only a handful of elephants survived. It is also said that many of the elephants died of starvation or dehydration during the journey and that only one elephant survived by the end of the war. Still, even with a small number of elephants, their presence was enough to intimidate the Roman soldiers and throw their battle lines into chaos.

In any case, the use of elephants in Hannibal’s expedition was a bold and unconventional move, and it contributed to the success of his campaign.

The Mighty Journey

Hannibal began his journey by gathering a large army of men and elephants (mostly gathered from Nova Carthago — today known as Cartagena in the south of Iberia) and set out from Carthage in the spring of 218 BCE. He first led his men through Iberia and across the Pyrenees, where they encountered resistance from the Gauls. Despite facing these initial challenges, Hannibal was able to successfully lead his army across the mountains and into Italy.

In the year 217 BCE, after spending the winter with his Gallic allies, Hannibal set out on a new campaign. The Roman army, sensing the threat, had blocked the usual eastern and western routes to Rome. But Hannibal, never one to be deterred by obstacles, devised a daring plan. He led his army through the treacherous swamps at the mouth of the Arno River, a route that was not only the quickest south but also avoided any direct confrontation with the enemy. However, the march was not without its challenges. The journey took several days, and many lives were lost along the way. Hannibal himself even lost an eye to an infection, believed to be pink eye.

One of the most enduring mysteries of history is how Hannibal managed to cross the Alps with his army. Even the historian Polybius, who wrote about the event just a generation later, could not figure out the route that Hannibal took. A popular theory, presented by Livy, was that Hannibal ordered his men to build fires to heat up the boulders, and then poured vats of wine and vinegar on the stones. The rapid transition from hot to cold caused the boulders to crack, and with each crack, they poured more liquid, causing the cracks to expand. Eventually, the rocks were weak enough that Hannibal’s men were able to remove the boulders and continue on their journey. However, there is no evidence to support this theory.

As Hannibal and his army marched through the unforgivable terrain of the Alps, one figure stood out among the rest — a mighty elephant named Surus. This majestic creature, believed to be of Asian descent, was missing a tusk and may have even been decorated with a red cloth and shield. Surus was supposedly the sole remaining elephant out of the 37 that crossed the Alps.

Hannibal likely used Surus as a platform to survey the battlefield, but it’s possible that he also employed the elephant as a means of impressing his allies, the Gauls. These fierce warriors were known for their fickleness, and Hannibal may have believed that the intimidating sight of him riding atop Surus would help to keep them loyal, which was an impossible task when it came to the unreliable Gauls.

Despite the challenges of crossing the snowy peaks and marshy lowlands, Surus proved to be a reliable companion for Hannibal, earning a place in history as one of the most iconic war elephants of all time.

The War Comes to Italy

Once in Italy, Hannibal was able to launch a series of surprise attacks on the Roman Republic, quickly capturing several key cities and fortresses, and inflecting crushing defeats on Roman armies.

Hannibal’s daring march into Roman-controlled territory foiled the enemy’s attempts to battle on foreign soil. His presence among the Gauls of the Po Valley enabled him to sever the allegiance of those tribes to Rome before the Romans had a chance to respond in kind. Consul Publius Cornelius Scipio, the father of Scipio Africanus, was the Roman commander sent to intercept Hannibal. Scipio, who had not anticipated Hannibal’s attempt to cross the Alps, sent a small detachment to Gaul to confront him. Acting quickly and decisively, Scipio succeeded in moving his army to Italy in time to face Hannibal. After encountering the Romans at the Battle of Ticinus, Hannibal’s forces moved through the Po Valley and received support from the Gauls and Ligurians which boosted his army to about 40,000 men. Scipio was wounded but was rescued by his son’s courageousness on the battlefield.

The Roman consular army was then dispatched to the Po Valley, and Hannibal brilliantly positioned himself to cut it off from Placentia and Arminum. He captured Clastidium and obtained supplies for his troops. But Consul Tiberius Sempronius Longus, having evaded Hannibal, reached Placentia and strengthened Scipio’s army. Hannibal then demonstrated his exceptional military capabilities in the Battle of Trebia, using a surprise attack to outmaneuver and overwhelm the Roman infantry.

Hannibal always led by example, sharing in their hardships and putting himself in harm’s way during the fiercest battles. One of the most notable examples of his leadership was during the Battle of Lake Trasimene, where he devised the largest ambush in military history. In this battle, which transpired in the spring of 217 BCE, Hannibal’s army of over 50,000 men ambushed and trapped a Roman force of 30,000 led by Gaius Flaminius. His troops attacked from three sides, leaving the Romans with nowhere to retreat as the lake loomed behind them. The Roman army was decimated, with half of them killed and the other half taken as prisoners. This crushing defeat prompted the Romans to appoint Quintus Fabius Maximus Verrucosus as their temporary dictator.

Fabius, departing from Roman military tradition, employed a daring strategy to outmaneuver Hannibal. He placed several Roman armies in his vicinity, watching and limiting his movements. Despite this, Hannibal was still able to ravage Apulia and march through Samnium into the rich and fertile province of Campania, hoping to draw Fabius into battle. Fabius followed close behind, yet refused to be drawn out of the defensive. This unpopular approach led to the night Battle of Ager Falernus, where Hannibal tricked the Romans by tying burning torches to the horns of a herd of cattle and driving them up the nearby heights. While some Romans pursued this decoy, Hannibal silently led his army through the lowlands and up an unguarded pass. Fabius was within striking distance but remained steady, and thus Hannibal managed to stealthily escape with his entire army intact.

Fabius’ plan of avoiding direct confrontation with Hannibal, ultimately resulted in Hannibal outmaneuvering him in every single move. Despite all of Fabius’ efforts, he was eventually denounced for his tactics and removed from his position as dictator.

Cannae

Hannibal’s most famous victory was at the Battle of Cannae, in which he managed to trap and destroy a larger Roman army. This was one of the most crushing defeats in Roman military history.

In the spring of 216 BCE, Hannibal and his army captured the Roman’s vast food stores at Cannae, leaving the Roman Senate with no choice but to take drastic action. They united two Roman armies under the command of the consuls, Lucius Aemilius Paullus and Gaius Terentius Varro, with a combined force of between 70,000 and 85,000 men. Despite being outnumbered, Hannibal’s cavalry, composed of diverse units such as the skilled Numidian cavalry, heavily-armed Gallic horsemen, and Spanish cavalry, outnumbered the Roman horsemen.

Hannibal’s strategic tactics at Cannae proved to be a decisive factor in the battle. He lined up his infantry in a crescent formation, with his highly skilled African infantry on the ends and a tempting gap in the middle, inviting the Roman infantry to charge forward. As the Romans pushed into the crescent, it bent in the opposite direction, trapping them in a pocket of death as Hannibal’s African corps swung in on the sides, and his cavalry units under Maharbal and Hanno killed or drove off the Roman cavalry and hit them in the rear.

After four hours of intense fighting, the Romans were decimated, with nearly a third of the Roman senators, one consul, and over 50,000 soldiers killed, compared to just about 10,000 Carthaginian casualties. The Battle of Cannae was the worst defeat Rome had ever suffered, and it remains one of the deadliest battles in history with estimates of Roman casualties ranging from 67,000 to 85,000. When considering that the estimated adult male population in Rome at that time was around 400,000, the Roman losses become even more devastating.

During this legendary battle, the brilliant Carthaginian leader made the wise decision to stay atop his trusty elephant, Surus. This proved to be a decisive move, as it allowed him to effectively command his troops from the center of the battlefield with precision timing. The fate of Surus, however, remains a mystery to this day. Some historians believe the elephant died before the battle, while others theorize that it returned to Africa with Hannibal over a decade later.

The news of the Roman defeat at Cannae sent shockwaves throughout the ancient world. King Philip V of Macedon saw an opportunity to gain power and formed an alliance with Carthage with the goal of expelling the Romans from the Balkans. Cities in Italy, such as Capua, welcomed Hannibal and allowed him to occupy their territory. Meanwhile, the people of Carthage rejoiced at the defeat of the Romans and celebrated as Hannibal sent home hundreds of gold rings, taken from the fingers of fallen Roman soldiers, as a symbol of the upper class’s defeat.

However, the Romans were not broken by this devastating loss. Instead, they were determined to destroy Hannibal and his army at any cost. They refused to let their Italian allies turn against Rome, which greatly hindered Hannibal’s plan to conquer Italy. Furthermore, after the Battle of Cannae, Hannibal would never again have the opportunity to fight a major battle against the Romans. The Romans adopted a strategy of attrition, slowly wearing down their enemy.

Although Hannibal was never able to capture Rome, his impact on the Roman Republic was undeniable. He was their most feared enemy, the man who came closest to destroying the city. Even years after his death, Romans would still express their fear by exclaiming “Hannibal is at the gates!” whenever a crisis arose.

Thereafter

As Hannibal and his army were locked in a grueling stalemate in Italy after their historic victory at Cannae, his brother Hasdrubal bravely set out to bring much-needed reinforcements in an attempt to launch a decisive attack on the city of Rome. However, their plans were foiled when the Romans received word of Hasdrubal’s impending arrival, and despite the fact that his journey across the treacherous Alps was made easier by the constructions left behind by Hannibal’s own army, Hasdrubal found himself facing a massive Roman army that vastly outnumbered his own.

Sadly, Hasdrubal, though brave, was no match for the Roman forces, and his army was utterly destroyed, with Hasdrubal himself falling in battle. Hannibal received the devastating news of his brother’s defeat when Roman riders triumphantly tossed Hasdrubal’s severed head into his camp.

Meanwhile, back in Carthage, the people were divided over what course of action to take during the war. While Hannibal was a beloved and respected figure, the governing bodies were deeply divided. Those loyal to Hannibal were eager to give him the support he needed to finally defeat Rome once and for all, but a powerful and influential faction led by Hanno II the Great, who had earned the moniker “the Great” for his many victories against Carthage’s African enemies, strongly opposed the war with Rome. Hanno believed that Carthage would be better served by conquering more of the African continent instead of wasting resources on a war with Rome, which he saw as a doomed endeavor. He had opposed Hamilcar Barca’s decision to make war on Rome, and his attitude had not changed after Cannae. Hanno II’s opposition to the war would prove to be a significant factor in Hannibal’s lack of reinforcements while in Italy.

After the devastating defeat at Cannae, Hannibal spent a grueling fourteen years in Italy, his army slowly dwindling in size as the Romans refused to engage him in open battle. Despite his best efforts, he was unable to conquer the city of Rome and the stalemate between the two sides continued as Rome methodically attacked his allies one by one. But when Rome turned its sights on Carthage itself, Hannibal knew it was time to return home and defend his beloved city.

Hannibal’s Ambitious Voyage

Back to Carthage and Beyond

Upon his return, Hannibal quickly took on a new role, becoming one of Carthage’s highest-ranking magistrates. He fought tirelessly against corruption in the government and worked to ensure that the war reparations Carthage was forced to pay Rome were paid without imposing additional taxes on his fellow citizens. Rome was so shocked by Carthage’s recovery under Hannibal’s leadership that they eventually forced him into exile in 195 BCE.

Despite his exile, Hannibal refused to give up. He traveled from place to place, living life as an international outlaw and eventually finding refuge in Syria under the protection of King Antiochus III of the Seleucid Empire. When Antiochus asked Hannibal to lead his troops against Rome in Italy, the aging general allegedly replied, “I think all this will be enough, yes, quite enough, for the Romans, even though they are most avaricious.”

Though his final battles were not fought on the field of war, Hannibal’s legacy lived on as Carthage rose from the ashes to become a powerful city once again.

The mighty Antiochus, who had once stood tall as a considerable enemy of Rome, was no match for the powerful Roman army. As predicted by the great Hannibal, Antiochus’ army was soundly defeated at the Battle of Thermopylae in 191 BCE. The Romans, victorious in battle, immediately demanded that Antiochus hand over the infamous Hannibal.

With his defeat, Hannibal was forced to hit the road once more, traveling to far-off lands in search of refuge. He was also known to have received hospitality at the Armenian royal court of Artaxias I. According to Strabo and Plutarch, he also planned and supervised the building of the new royal capital, Artaxata.

Feeling threatened by Antiochus’ potential surrender to the Romans, Hannibal then fled to Crete, but soon returned to Anatolia and sought refuge with Prusias I of Bithynia. He then served Prusias in his war against Rome’s ally, King Eumenes II of Pergamon. During one of the naval battles between Prusias and Eumenes, Hannibal had large pots filled with venomous snakes thrown onto Eumenes’ ships, resulting in a decisive victory. He also managed to defeat Eumenes in two further battles on land.

A Legend Ends

After some time, the Romans intervened and threatened Bithynia into handing over Hannibal, which Prusias agreed to. Resolute in not falling into his enemy’s hands, Hannibal resorted to poisoning himself. However, accounts differ as to the exact year and cause of his death. Pausanias wrote that it was due to a finger wound sustained while mounting his horse (eventually causing fever), whilst Cornelius Nepos and Livy claim that he killed himself upon realizing that the castle he was residing in was surrounded by Roman soldiers. Appian writes that it was Prusias who ultimately poisoned the great general.

Though the exact year of Hannibal’s death is uncertain, one popular theory is that he passed away in 181 BCE. Interestingly, this was also the year that Scipio Africanus, one of Hannibal’s greatest rivals, died. Furthermore, Africanus may or may not have taken his own life, and by the time of his death, he had gone into self-imposed exile from Rome due to his political enemies tarnishing his reputation.

The tragic image of these two former enemies dying alone in exile, forsaken by the nations they fought so hard to protect, is a fitting end to their story.

Legacy

Hannibal’s expedition to Italy during the Second Punic War was not only a tactical success but also a strategic one. It forced the Roman Republic to devote a significant portion of its resources and manpower to defend Italy, which weakened its ability to defend its other territories. Furthermore, it also forced the Roman Republic to negotiate with Carthage from a position of relative weakness. While the Second Punic War ultimately ended in the defeat of Carthage, it was due to other factors and not to Hannibal’s expedition.

Despite being viewed as a ruthless monster by many, Hannibal was also respected by Roman historians for his incredible military prowess. The historian Polybius acknowledged that it took a truly exceptional man to lead an army for 17 years in a foreign land without reinforcements and still emerge victorious.

Centuries after his death, Hannibal’s reputation as one of history’s greatest generals was firmly cemented.

In a surprising twist of fate, it is said that Hannibal and his Roman nemesis Scipio Africanus even reunited in the court of the Seleucid Kingdom where Hannibal served as an advisor. The two men reportedly met on several occasions, and in one instance, Africanus asked Hannibal who he believed to be the greatest military leader of all time. Without hesitation, Hannibal named Alexander the Great, King Pyrrhus of Epirus, and himself as the top three. Africanus, annoyed at not being included, asked Hannibal where he would have placed himself if he had not lost at the Battle of Zama. Hannibal, always the master tactician, replied that in that case, he would have placed himself ahead of Alexander the Great. This was not only a boast but also a compliment to Africanus, as it acknowledged that he had defeated the greatest general of all time.

The Fate of Carthage

In the years following Hannibal’s defeat, the Roman Republic was able to mount a successful counteroffensive against Carthage. The Roman general Scipio Africanus led several successful campaigns in North Africa and was ultimately able to capture the city of Carthage itself in 146 BCE.

After the fall of Carthage, the Roman Republic imposed harsh terms on the defeated city. The city was razed to the ground, and the surviving population was sold into slavery. Roman soldiers reportedly salted the fields of Carthage, so that nothing would grow in the city for all eternity.

The Barcas

After Hannibal’s death, his surviving brothers and sons were hunted down by the Romans and many of them were killed or taken as prisoners. One of his brothers, Hasdrubal, who served as a general under Hannibal and commanded Carthaginian forces in Iberia after his brother’s death, was eventually killed by the Roman general Scipio Africanus in 207 BCE.

Some members of the Barca family were able to escape the Roman Republic and flee to other parts of the Western Mediterranean. However, the Barca family never regained the power and influence it once had in Carthage, and the Barca dynasty came to an end. It is not known if any direct descendants of the Barca family survived until the medieval ages.

It is worth noting that it is not clear if the Barca family was an official ruling dynasty or just a powerful clan that held a great deal of influence in Carthage. But in any case, their legacy lived on, and their reputation as a powerful and influential family persisted long after their fall.

Their name was remembered throughout the Mediterranean and in the Roman Republic, where the memory of Hannibal Barca and his expedition to Italy through the Alps remained a topic of great interest and admiration for the Roman people. To this day, Hannibal himself is remembered and celebrated as one of the greatest military commanders of all time, and his expedition over the Alps was studied and admired by military leaders and historians throughout the centuries.

After the fall of the Western Roman Empire in the 5th century CE, the knowledge and stories about the Barcas would have continued to be passed on through oral tradition and in historical texts. But as the Roman empire fell and the Romanized world changed, the exact details of the Barcas would have been eventually lost or distorted over time.

It’s possible that some individuals may have claimed descent from the Barca family, but there is no concrete evidence to support these claims and it’s difficult to verify them.

The Future of Carthage

Carthage was refounded as a Roman colony and was rebuilt and repopulated by Romans, although the size and population never reached the heights it had under the Carthaginian Republic. Roman rule in the area was solidified, and North Africa became one of the most important and fertile regions of the Roman Empire.

The destruction of Carthage, however, marked the end of the Carthaginian Republic and the end of an era of conflict between Rome and Carthage. It also established Rome as the dominant power in the Western Mediterranean and set the stage for Rome’s eventual emergence as the dominant power in the ancient world.

The Evidence

Unfortunately, very few original Carthaginian manuscripts have survived to the present day. The majority of what we know about the history and culture of Carthage comes from the accounts of ancient Greek and Roman historians, who wrote about Carthage and its people long after the city’s destruction. The most important and detailed accounts of Carthaginian history and culture come from the following sources:

• Livy, a Roman historian, wrote an extensive history of Rome in his Ab Urbe Condita that covers the Second Punic War and the eventual destruction of Carthage. He provides a detailed account of the war, including the strategies and tactics used by both sides, as well as information about the political and social conditions in Carthage at the time.
• Polybius, a Greek historian who lived during the time of the Second Punic War, wrote a detailed history of the war in his Histories. He was an eye-witness of the war, and as a friend of Scipio Africanus, the Roman general who defeated Hannibal, he had access to inside information. His account is valuable as a source of information on the Carthaginian perspective of the war and their society.
• Appian of Alexandria, another Greek historian, wrote a history of Rome in his Roman History, which covers the Punic Wars and the eventual fall of Carthage. He provides a detailed account of the war, including the strategies and tactics used by both sides, as well as information about the political and social conditions in Carthage at the time.
• Diodorus Siculus, a Greek historian of the 1st century BCE, wrote a history of the world from mythological times to his own era, in which he covers the Punic wars, giving an overview of the causes, the course of events, and their consequences.
• Plutarch, a Greek historian, and biographer wrote a series of biographies of famous Greek and Roman figures, which includes a biography of Hannibal and Scipio Africanus. His accounts provide insights into the characters and motivations of these famous figures, as well as information about the political and social conditions in Carthage at the time.

Aside from these historical accounts, archaeological excavations in Carthage, as well as other Phoenician settlements, have provided valuable information about the culture and daily life of the ancient Carthaginians. These include pottery, jewelry, tools, and other objects, as well as the remains of buildings and structures.

Historically speaking, Carthage was a Phoenician city, and the Phoenicians were a group of people who inhabited the coastal regions of the eastern Mediterranean. They were known for their seafaring capabilities, trade, and for spreading their language and writing system throughout the Mediterranean.

The Phoenician script was written in an alphabet, but as was typical for ancient cultures, most of the written records were on perishable materials such as papyrus, wood, or leather, and has not survived the test of time. What little remains of Carthaginian inscriptions are mostly tomb and temple inscriptions on stone, which were in the Phoenician language and script.

Additionally, some of the artifacts and ruins of the city of Carthage have provided some information about the culture and daily life of the ancient Carthaginians. These include pottery, jewelry, tools, and other objects, as well as the remains of buildings and structures.

Overall, while our knowledge of Carthage is relatively limited compared to other ancient cultures, it’s important to remember that the ancient historian Polybius, a contemporary of Scipio Africanus, wrote a history of the Punic wars, which was a valuable source of information on the Carthaginian’s perspective. Furthermore, more recent archaeology has been shedding light on the Phoenician culture and the city of Carthage itself.

The images in this article were sourced from Google Images.