The Golden Age of Ages
The Islamic Golden Age, spanning from the 8th to the 14th century CE, marks a remarkable period of growth for Islam and Arabic culture. This radiant era witnessed a marvelous efflorescence in the domains of art, trade, and scientific inquiry, irradiating vast territories spanning North Africa, the Middle East, Central Asia, and Southern Europe. Its inception is attributed to the enlightened reign of the celebrated Abbasid caliph, Harun al-Rashid (786 to 809 CE), whose visionary leadership heralded the advent of the reputed House of Wisdom. Within the walls of this lauded institution, erudite scholars from all corners of the Muslim world flocked to the thriving metropolis of Baghdad, then a beacon of intellectual prowess and the largest city on Earth, to undertake the noble pursuit of translating the timeless wisdom of the classical world into the mellifluous tongues of Arabic and Farsi.
Regrettably, the climax of this resplendent period was marred by the devastating onslaught of Mongol invasions and the heart-wrenching Siege of Baghdad in 1258, which precipitated the eventual downfall of the Abbasid caliphate. However, alternate narratives exist. Some scholars choose to extend the denouement of this golden age, extending its luminescent glow until approximately 1350. Within this expanded timeframe, the Timurid Renaissance takes center stage, further enriching the pages of history with its intellectual superbness. Meanwhile, others dare to push the boundaries of convention, considering the end of the Islamic Golden Age to have persisted until the end of the 15th and 16th centuries, a period that witnessed the meteoric rise of the Islamic gunpowder empires, leaving a clear mark upon the chronicles of civilization.
Bayt al-Hikma
Verily, the translation movement, a marvel of its time, bore witness to the assimilation of knowledge from various civilizations into the Arabic language. This era of enlightenment was characterized by the translation of an extensive corpus of Hellenic literature and secular Greek works into Arabic.
The heart of this literary achievement lay within the Bayt al-Hikma (House of Wisdom), a center of enlightenment and intellect under the Abbasids’ rule. It was under the reign of al-Ma’mun, son of Harun al-Rashid, the founder, that this wondrous institution was expanded both in size and scope, becoming a hub for the study of diverse branches of learning. Within its walls, intellectuals from various backgrounds gathered, including but not limited to scientists, philosophers, scribes, and translators.
It was in this House that the Muslim world gifted the non-Hellenic world with the translated works of great ancient philosophers, scientists, and inventors such as Aristotle and Hippocrates. It truly exemplifies the greatness of this era that much of the Greek tradition was saved from being lost to the sands of time. The House was not limited to the Arabic language alone, for Farsi, Aramaic, Hebrew, Syriac, Indian, and Latin were also spoken within its walls. From far and wide, the curious of the world sought knowledge and were welcomed into the House with open arms.
This library, a symbol of the Islamic Golden Age, also housed a diverse collection of translated works from Greek, Persian, and Indian civilizations. The House of Wisdom’s focus on knowledge was not limited to philosophy and theology alone, for studies in the most diverse branches of knowledge flourished within its halls. From metaphysics to religious sciences, from algebra to medicine, from physics to biology, from chemistry to trigonometry, and from astronomy to many other disciplines, the House was a nexus of intellectual activity with millions of books scattered across its rich libraries.
Moreover, the astronomy observatory, established as part of the House, allowed astronomers to observe the universe and assess the accuracy of the conflicting astronomical texts of the Greeks, Persians, and Indians. Some historians have even claimed that this project represented the first state-sponsored large-scale scientific endeavor, further cementing the legacy of this magnificent House.
Furthermore, it was through the expeditions of Muslims to China that the art of papermaking was learned and brought to Baghdad, transforming the city into a center for the production and reproduction of books, making them much more accessible to the masses.
Al-Ma’mun
It is said that the Caliph al-Ma’mun was a lover of knowledge, so great was his passion that he even preferred scientific texts as the spoils of war. This love was not limited to the Caliph alone, as the entire Abbasid society had come to understand the worth of knowledge and was supported by merchants and military alike. Scholars and translators found it easy to make a living and academic pursuits were considered a marker of high status in society. The Caliph’s love for knowledge was so profound that it is said to have been sparked by a dream in which he was visited by the ancient philosopher Aristotle and they discussed the meaning of goodness.
The Bayt al-Hikma was much more than just an academic center, for its experts had several functions in Baghdad, serving as engineers and architects on construction projects, as public servants keeping accurate calendars, as medics, and as consultants. Al-Ma’mun himself was deeply involved in the daily life of the House of Wisdom, regularly visiting its scholars, inquiring about their activities, and participating in debates. He organized groups of sages from the Bayt al-Hikma into major research projects to satisfy his own intellectual curiosities, commissioning the mapping of the world, the confirmation of data from the Almagest, and the deduction of the real size of the Earth. The Caliph also promoted Egyptology and participated in excavations at the pyramids of Giza.
Al-Ma’mun was also the first ruler to fund big science, building the first astronomical observatories in Baghdad and monitoring the progress of major research projects involving teams of scholars and scientists. His love for knowledge was evident in his personal involvement in the academic debates of Kalām, an art of philosophical debate that he carried on from his Iranian tutor, Ja’far. During these debates, scholars would discuss their fundamental Islamic beliefs and doctrines in an open, intellectual atmosphere. Al-Ma’mun’s legacy to science is his recognition of the value of knowledge and his commitment to funding research and fostering intellectual pursuits.
Al-Ma’mun also sent expeditions of scholars from the Bayt al-Hikma to collect texts from far-off lands. Furthermore, the Caliph was the one who appointed the unforgettable translator Hunayn ibn Ishaq as the head of the translation work (I will write an entire section on Hunayn shortly). The chief librarian of the Bayt al-Hikma was Sahl ibn Harun, an Iranian poet, and astrologer, while the talented Sabian Thābit ibn Qurra also contributed to the translation of Greek works.
The quality of translations during this era was exceptional, as the new Abbasid scientific tradition placed a high value on incorporating new ideas into the ancient works being translated. As a result, the Bayt al-Hikma became the greatest repository of books in the world and attracted the brightest Arab and Iranian minds known to man. It acquired a reputation as a center of learning, although universities, as they are known today, did not yet exist. Instead, knowledge was transmitted directly from teacher to student in maktabs (aka schools).
In the 11th century, Nizam al-Mulk founded the al-Nizamiyya of Baghdad, one of the first institutions of higher education in Iraq, solidifying the legacy of the Bayt al-Hikma as a hub of intellectual activity.
The Art of Translation
The process of translation was undertaken with the utmost care and precision, with each area of study being overseen by specific individuals or groups of translators, chosen for their expertise in the field. For example, the renowned Abū Jaʿfar ibn Mūsa ibn Shākir and his family were entrusted with the translation of engineering and mathematical works, while ibn Farkhān al-Tabarī and Yaʿqūb al-Kindī were given the task of translating philosophical and celestial movement texts. Ibn Ishāq al-Harānī, meanwhile, was in charge of translations pertaining to the study of medicine. And as I mentioned in the previous section, Hunayn ibn Ishaq would eventually be given the honor of heading the translations of the majority of Greek medicine works.
The translators, hailing from a rich assortment of cultural, religious, and ethnic backgrounds, including Iranians, Nestorian Christians, and Muslims, worked together to enrich the inventory of the House of Wisdom and to provide the Abbasid Caliphate with a wealth of educational literature.
Once the process of translation was complete, the process of copying and binding the texts would commence. Skilled scribes were called upon to transcribe the pages with meticulous precision, and once the copies were ready, they would be bound together, adorned with covers, and cataloged for safekeeping in the library. Copies of the translated works were also distributed across the empire, ensuring that the knowledge and wisdom contained therein would reach far and wide. Verily, the story of this magnificent House of Wisdom is a story of many successes.
All Good is Fated to End
On the fateful day of February 13th, 1258, the armies of the Mongol conqueror Hulagu descended upon the capital city of the Abbasid caliphs. The invaders wreaked havoc and destruction upon the metropolis, ransacking its libraries and destroying the cultural and intellectual treasures they housed. The House of Wisdom, the most glorious of these centers, was laid to waste along with all other libraries in Baghdad.
According to the accounts of those who bore witness to the Siege of Baghdad, the multitude of books (said to be in the millions; no less than 2-to-3-million books) from the city’s libraries were so plentiful that they were cast into the Tigris River in such quantities that the river flowed black with the ink from their pages. Some have even claimed that the Mongols used the books themselves to build their barns, in place of clay. An eyewitness to the events stated:
“The river was filled with so many books that one could ride across it on horseback, using the volumes as a bridge.”
However, all was not lost. The honorable scholar Nasir al-Din al-Tusi managed to rescue approximately 400,000 manuscripts, which he took to the city of Maragheh before the siege. Unfortunately, many of the leftover books that remained in Baghdad after the pillaging stopped were torn apart by pillagers, who sought to use their leather covers to make sandals. I’ll write more about al-Tusi’s marvelous contributions to the sciences soon.
Hulagu’s destruction of the libraries of Baghdad dealt a severe blow to the preservation of human intellect and civilization. The books that were housed within the libraries represented the works of distinguished scholars and scientists and were instrumental in spreading knowledge, culture, and wisdom among both Muslims and non-Muslims. With their destruction, the world saw the fall of one of the greatest repositories of human heritage, with a calamitous impact on the Islamic civilization that endured for many centuries to come.
Oh, how glorious were the days of the Islamic Golden Age, where knowledge was highly valued and the pursuit of truth was sought by all who entered the magnificent halls of the House of Wisdom! A thousand woes to the ignorance and backwardness of today…
Hunayn ibn Isḥāq
Rewinding back to the ninth century when the Arab Nestorian Christian, Ḥunayn ibn Isḥāq, set out on a mission that would change the face of scientific discourse in the Islamic world forever. Armed with a deep understanding of the four principal languages of his time: Greek, Syriac, Farsi, and Arabic, and a passion for preserving the legacy of ancient Greek medicine, Ḥunayn sought to translate the works of Galen of Pergamon, the Roman physician whose bibliography of over 500 treatises accounts for nearly a tenth of all surviving ancient Greek literature.
In his quest to bring the treasures of ancient Greek medical knowledge to the Arabic-speaking world, Ḥunayn ventured to the far corners of the empire, in search of manuscript copies that were not available in the Islamic world. He diligently compared manuscripts and made every effort to ensure that his translations were accurate and consistent, earning him the title of “Sheikh of the Translators.”
But Ḥunayn’s contribution to the Islamic world went far beyond simply translating the works of Galen. In his quest to bring clarity to the complex terminology of ancient Greek medicine, Ḥunayn made the bold decision to explain, rather than adopt, the Greek terminology in his translations. This approach was instrumental in establishing Arabic as an international language of science, as it allowed for a more consistent and coherent understanding of scientific concepts in the Arabic-speaking world.
While the works of Galen were revered and widely read in the ancient world, the vast majority of these treatises were written in Greek, a language that was not widely understood in the Islamic world. But Ḥunayn was not one to be deterred by such obstacles. He ventured far and wide, traveling to the Byzantine Empire and scouring the libraries of the Islamic world for the most accurate and comprehensive copies of Galen’s works. Then, with a level of care and attention that is seldom seen, Ḥunayn translated these works into Arabic and Syriac, for the benefit of the wider medical community. But he did not stop there. Aside from thoroughly explaining each and every terminology, Hunayn made a deliberate decision to translate all the Greek medical terminologies into plain Arabic so that all readers, regardless of their level of education or background, could understand and benefit from the knowledge contained within these rich treatises.
As a result of Ḥunayn’s tireless efforts, Arabic became an international language of science, one that was capable of conveying complex medical concepts and terminology to the masses. To this day, one can still see the legacy of Ḥunayn’s work, as many of the Greek terms used in modern medical language have been translated into Arabic and continue to be understood by the general public.
Hunayn’s Beginnings
It is recorded that the esteemed Hunayn ibn Ishaq was born in the year 809 CE and passed away in the month of Safar 264 A.H. (877 CE). During his lifetime, he lived in the flourishing city of Baghdad and was privileged to reside at the court of ten successive Caliphs: al-Amin, al-Ma’mun, al-Mu’tasim, al-Waathiq, al-Mutawakkel, al-Mustansir, al-Musta’in, al-Mu’tazz, al-Muhtadi, and al-Mu’tamid. Although he faced trials and tribulations during the reign of al-Mutawakkel, including being imprisoned twice, Hunayn persevered and left a lasting legacy in the field of medicine and translation.
Hunayn recounts in his own words that he began his translation career during the reign of al-Ma’mun when he was a mere youth of around seventeen years. He translated Galen’s De Differentiis Febrium for the physician Jabril ibn Bukhtishu, marking the first of many of Galen’s works that he would translate into Syriac. As Hunayn matured in both age and experience, he became increasingly satisfied with the value of his translations, including De Facultatibus Naturalibus and De Constitutione Artis Medicae. He writes that at the time of his translation of De Constitutione Artis Medicae, he was a man of thirty years with a wealth of scientific knowledge, both acquired through his own studies and through the collection of books he had accumulated.
Hunayn’s Challenges
It is through the accounts of the acclaimed physician, ibn Abi Usaybi’ah, that we are privy to detailed accounts of the life of this admirable translator, Hunayn ibn Ishaq.
At the age of forty, Hunayn considered himself to have reached the pinnacle of his translation skills. He had, at this point, provided ample evidence of his mastery through his translation of De Elementis secundum Hippocratem and the revision of several of his earlier works. Nevertheless, his life was not without challenges, for he was imprisoned during the reign of al-Mutawakkel, a calamity that led to the loss of his precious library, which he had collected throughout his travels.
Hunayn’s Risala work recounts the unfortunate events that befell him during his imprisonment. He laments the loss of all the books he had collected over his lifetime, which were confiscated along with his wealth. The cause of his imprisonment remains a mystery, but it is believed that it may have been due to the intrigues of his ignorant Christian friends and relations who, in their greed, kept him captive and deprived him of all he had, including his most beloved necessities: pen and paper.
Despite this setback, Hunayn eventually regained the favor of al-Mutawakkel, through his exceptional medical skills, and was gifted three houses filled with books. He does not mention whether these books were the same as he had lost, however.
In his travels, Hunayn also encountered several challenges, including his search for a Greek manuscript of Galen’s De Demonstratione. He tells us of his journey through the lands of Mesopotamia, Syria, Palestine, and Egypt, to Alexandria, in search of the elusive manuscript. It was only in Damascus that he was only able to find half of it.
In his later years, Hunayn’s literary achievements only multiplied, as he worked on several translations, completing the Arabic version of De Foetus Formatione during the caliphate of al-Mu’tazz and translating half of De Constitutione Artis Medicae into Arabic just two months before his death.
It is said that his son, Ishaq, completed the task after Hunayn’s passing in the year 877 CE. Alongside his son Ishaq and several other translators, Hunayn managed to translate over 129 of Galen’s books alone to Arabic, while Hunayn himself is said to have translated a total of 116 by himself; additionally, aside from Galen’s works, Hunayn had also translated various other ancient authors’ works.
Thus, through Hunayn’s translations, the arcane language of medicine was demystified, bridging the gap between the specialists and the general public and paving the way for scientific knowledge to reach every corner of society, regardless of status, wealth, or academic attainments.
All images were sourced from Google Images.
