Myths and Realities: Exploring the Fate of Spartan Glory
In preparing for an upcoming historical fiction project on Sparta and its decline, I meticulously gathered extensive notes on the complex history of this overly-lauded city-state. First of all, it’s important to acknowledge the strong impact of geography on the evolution of civilizations, with ancient Greece being a prime example. The geographical layout of the Greek peninsula contributed significantly to the distinct development of Greek society, marked by two notable geographic characteristics.
Shaping Ancient Greece
Foremost among these features was Greece’s abundant access to water, which enclosed a myriad of scattered islands, deep harbors, and an elaborate network of rivers. This natural abundance of water resources propelled the Greek people toward a path of exploration and trade. The Greeks, driven by their innate curiosity and a desire for prosperity, took to the seas, venturing beyond their shores to establish colonies and engage in far-reaching trade networks. The Mediterranean Sea, with its beckoning expanse, became both a highway for cultural exchange and a source of economic growth for the Greeks. This maritime connection facilitated the spread of ideas, wealth, and artistic influences, promoting a cosmopolitan outlook and a sense of cultural interconnectedness among the various city-states.
The Birth of the Polis
Moreover, the mountainous terrain of Greece presented a formidable barrier to travel and communication, ultimately stimulating the emergence of the polis, or city-state, around 750 BCE. These majestic peaks, rising defiantly from the earth, created a natural barrier that not only divided the land but also shaped the destinies of its inhabitants. Isolated from one another by these towering mountains, each polis developed independently, leading to the establishment of distinctive city-state structures and unique societal characteristics. The polis became the fundamental building block of Greek society, serving as an organizational framework that influenced every aspect of life, from politics and governance to culture and social norms.
Athens and Sparta, two renowned city-states of ancient Greece, demonstrate the extreme contrasts that arose due to their divergent geographical circumstances. Athens, situated on the Attica peninsula, earned distinction as the birthplace of significant ideas and the nurturing ground for a vibrant intellectual and artistic milieu. The Athenians, with their democratic system of governance, cultivated an environment conducive to free thinking, innovation, and philosophical inquiry. This intellectual prowess, coupled with their cosmopolitan outlook, drove Athens to great heights, becoming the epitome of ancient Greek intellectual and cultural achievements.
Sparta: The Militaristic Society
On the other hand, situated in the southern region of Greece on the Pelopónnisos peninsula, lay the city-state of Sparta, often referred to as Lacedaemon in ancient texts. Sparta personified a militaristic society, placing utmost emphasis on physical prowess, discipline, and military might. Governed by two kings and an oligarchy — a small group holding political control — Sparta thrived on the principles of strict hierarchy, rigorous military training, and unquestioning loyalty to the state. Renowned for their unswerving dedication to martial traditions and discipline, the Spartans epitomized the warrior ethos.
According to Greek mythology, Lacedaemon, a son of Zeus, founded the ancient city, bequeathing his name to the region and his wife’s name to the city itself. Furthermore, Sparta played a vital role in the Trojan War as a considerable member of the Greek forces. It was the Spartan king Menelaus who initiated the war when the Trojan prince Paris abducted his wife, Helen. This act transpired after the (idolatrized) goddess Aphrodite promised Helen to Paris as a reward for selecting her as the most beautiful goddess in a contest against Athena and Hera. Helen, famed for her exceptional beauty, typified the appeal of Spartan women, who were not only admired for both their looks and their spirited independence. Archaeological findings indicate that Sparta held significance as a site dating back at least 3,500 years, though the city itself was not constructed until the first millennium BCE.
Sparta’s Dominance
In the late 8th century BCE, Sparta triumphed over its neighboring region, Messenia, establishing dominion and exploiting its population to serve Spartan interests. Consequently, Sparta controlled a sizable territory of approximately 8,500 km², making it the largest polis in Greece and a prominent player in Greek politics. The subjugated peoples of Messenia and Laconia, known as perioikoi, lacked political rights within Sparta and were often obligated to serve in the Spartan army. Occupying a lower social status were the helots, semi-enslaved agricultural laborers residing on Spartan-owned estates. Acting as intermediaries between the helots and perioikoi were the liberated helots, or neodamōdeis. Spartan citizens abstained from engaging in farming activities, instead dedicating their time to military training, hunting, warfare, and politics. Although the helots were permitted to retain a portion of their cultivated produce, they were subjected to periodic purges to maintain societal hierarchy. Additionally, during times of war, helots could be conscripted into military service.
In the early stages of its history, Sparta underwent a transformative event — a violent and bloody slave revolt — that prompted a reformation of its society. Lycurgus, a prominent Spartan figure, responded by devising a stringent set of laws that demanded firm dedication to the state from its citizens. The primary objective of these laws was to mold individuals into hardened soldiers, capable of defending against potential adversaries and uprisings. The outcome was a rigid way of life that set Sparta apart from other Greek city-states of the time. The Spartans’ inflexible commitment to building a militaristic society left little room for pursuits in the arts or literature.
Building a Martial Society
From the very beginning, the Spartans emphasized the physical strength and resilience of their infants. Parents would subject their newborns to a test of endurance by leaving them on a mountain overnight, observing whether they could survive until the following morning. At the age of seven, Spartan boys were separated from their families and subjected to rigorous military training. They wore uniforms constantly, consumed modest meals consisting of plain foods, exercised barefoot to toughen their feet, and faced severe punishments for any acts of disobedience. Boys resided in communal barracks away from their families until they reached the age of 30, even after they entered into marriages. It was expected that men would be prepared to serve in the army until the age of 60.
Spartan Women: Beauty, Strength, and Independence
Spartan women, too, were held to high standards of loyalty and dedication to the state. Similar to their male counterparts, women adhered to a strict exercise regimen and played an active role in Spartan society. Although they were excluded from the voting process, Spartan women enjoyed greater rights and independence compared to women in other Greek city-states. They were able to possess property, often acquired through dowries and inheritances. Remarkably, Spartan women emerged as some of the wealthiest members of society due to the frequent loss of men in wars, eventually controlling 2/5th of Spartan land.
Moreover, Spartan women had a reasonable degree of freedom of movement, participated in athletic activities (performed in the nude like men), and even indulged in wine consumption. These liberties would have been deemed unacceptable in other Greek poleis. While there were foreigners, known as xenoi, residing in Spartan society, their presence was met with less enthusiasm than in other city-states. In some cases, the overly suspicious and occasionally paranoid Spartans forcibly expelled these individuals from their midst.
Unlike the Spartans, the Athenians placed significant importance on the arts, architecture, and literature. They dedicated their efforts to constructing thousands of temples and statues that exemplified their unique perception of beauty. The enduring style of art and architecture associated with the Athenians is now referred to as classical. Additionally, Athens possessed a democratic form of government, wherein power was shared among a portion of the populace. These distinctions, among others, eventually led to a conflict between the two city-states — Sparta and Athens.
The Peloponnesian War: Athens vs. Sparta
Known as the Peloponnesian War (431–404 BCE), this protracted conflict saw Sparta and Athens rallying allies and engaging in intermittent warfare for decades. No single city-state possessed the strength to decisively conquer the other. Thucydides, an Athenian historian, narrates the initial 20 years of the conflict, with Xenophon continuing the account in his work, Hellenica, covering the final seven years. The exact reason for the incomplete nature of Thucydides’ narrative remains unknown.
Numerous sources of friction ignited the hostilities, notably Athenian intervention in a dispute between Corinth, a Spartan ally, and its colony, Corcyra. However, according to Thucydides, the true cause of the conflict lay in Athens’ rise to greatness, which evoked fear in the Spartans about their own position. While Athens could be regarded as the moral aggressor, it was Sparta who declared war first. In terms of military strength, Sparta possessed a superior army in both quality and quantity, while Athens enjoyed a significant advantage at sea.
Athens possessed strong defenses, and its connection to the port of Piraeus through the Long Walls ensured a constant supply of provisions. The city could not be starved into surrender. Moreover, Athens possessed sufficient financial resources to procure supplies and maintain its fleet and army. Pericles, the Athenian leader, sharply assessed the situation and based his strategy on these factors. He successfully persuaded the rural population to relocate themselves and their belongings into the city, temporarily sacrificing their farmland but consolidating their strength within the protected space between the Long Walls.
Flashback: Leonidas and the Battle of Thermopylae
The splendor and might of Sparta’s martial reputation are greatly connected with the legendary valor displayed by Leonidas, the famed king of Sparta, and the heroic figure behind the unforgettable Battle of Thermopylae, which took place in 480 BCE. This historic clash witnessed the Persian Army triumph over more than 7,000 Greek soldiers, including the widely misconstrued notion that only 300 Spartans fought in this epic confrontation. Subsequently, the Persians proceeded to conquer and ravage the city of Athens. Despite being encircled and overwhelmingly outnumbered, Leonidas and his brave warriors fought to their last breath, perfectly embodying the words of Herodotus, who proclaimed that Spartan soldiers would either emerge victorious or perish while standing their ground.
Challenging the Myth: The Reality of Spartan Warriors
This remarkable tale of selfless heroism has, over time, overshadowed our understanding of the true nature of Sparta, blurring our perception of this ancient city-state. In reality, Spartans were not immune to cowardice, corruption, or the inclination to surrender or flee, just like any other inhabitants of ancient Greece. This prevalent myth of superhuman warriors, perpetuated in recent times by the visually stunning spectacle of the movie 300, where Leonidas was portrayed as a youthful and attractive hero at the age of 36, obscures the reality of ancient Spartans. They were ordinary men, susceptible to the same flaws and vulnerabilities, offering invaluable lessons to present-day society about heroism, military strategy, and the fallibility of humankind.
The First Decade of Conflict
Turning our attention back to the Peloponnesian War, the initial decade of conflict, aptly named the Archidamian War after the Spartan king who led incursions into Attica, failed to produce a decisive outcome. In 431 BCE, when the Peloponnesians invaded and devastated Attica, they discovered an empty land, and after approximately one month, they withdrew to their homes. This pattern repeated itself over the following six years. However, in 430 BCE, a devastating plague erupted in Athens, resulting in the loss of more than a quarter of the city’s population. Tragically, Pericles himself succumbed to the plague in 429 BCE, depriving Athens of its sole leader capable of guiding the unruly Athenians toward a unified strategy. Nevertheless, even in the absence of Pericles, Athens achieved several victories both on land and at sea in the subsequent years, notably the capture of Pylos in 425 BCE. Consequently, Sparta relinquished its annual invasions of Attica and extended a hand toward the possibility of peace.
Athens’ Resilience: Victory and Tragedy
The successor of Pericles, Cleon, managed to sway the Athenians to reject the peace offers made by Sparta. However, both Cleon and the exceptional Spartan general Brasidas met their demise at Amphipolis in 422 BCE, effectively eliminating the two primary opponents of peace, aptly referred to as the “pestles of war” in Aristophanes’ play Peace. Subsequently, the Peace of Nicias was established in 421 BCE, predominantly favoring Athens. Remarkably, Athens maintained its empire intact while its adversaries, Corinth and Boeotia, refused to sign the peace agreement.
Nonetheless, the Peace of Nicias proved to be fragile, ultimately collapsing entirely in 415 BCE when Athens, influenced by Alcibiades, dispatched a formidable fleet to attack Syracuse. The expedition to Sicily turned into a calamity, resulting in the defeat of the Athenian fleet and army in 413 BCE, accompanied by severe financial depletion. Meanwhile, Sparta steadily developed its naval forces, generously supported by Persia. Although Athens experienced initial success in naval battles for several years, the tide turned against them in 405 BCE when the Spartan commander Lysander annihilated the Athenian fleet at Aegospotami.
The End of Athens: The Fall of an Empire
Under siege from both land and sea, devoid of resources and allies, Athens surrendered in April 404 BCE, effectively becoming a vassal of its conqueror. Throughout the Greek world, the prevailing order had long been shaped by the coexistence of two dominant powers — Athens and Sparta. With the disappearance of Athenian influence, the fate of the future rested solely in Sparta’s hands. The ravages of war brought forth famine, plague, death, and misfortune. However, ideas cannot be extinguished by war. Despite Athens’ eventual military surrender, Athenian intellectual and philosophical concepts spread throughout the region. Temporary setbacks notwithstanding, these ideas gained wider acceptance and continued to evolve in the centuries that followed.
The Aftermath
The trajectory of the war had also led to political transformations in numerous cities, changes that proved challenging to reverse. Even within Sparta itself, success and growing power fostered a desire for sustained dominance. Nevertheless, Sparta faced significant obstacles when it came to assuming a leading or imperial role. Its full citizen population numbered only a few thousand and seemed to be in a perpetual decline. Sparta reached the high point of its power in 404 BCE after its victory over Athens in the second Peloponnesian War. Interestingly, the city lacked fortified walls, as its inhabitants preferred to defend it with soldiers rather than stone and mortar. However, within a few decades, following a defeat against the Thebans at the Battle of Leuctra, Sparta found itself relegated to the status of a second-rate power, a position from which it never managed to recover.
The decline of Sparta was inextricably linked to its dwindling manpower, exacerbated by various critical factors. One of these factors was Sparta’s failure to keep pace with the evolving art of warfare in the rest of the Greek world. Additionally, the Spartans tarnished their reputation for honesty and integrity by accepting funds from Persia. When faced with entirely new tactical situations, the Spartans displayed great courage but were ultimately outmaneuvered. The advent of innovative military strategies had undone them.
Numerous other elements contributed to Sparta’s downfall: Spartan armies began serving as paid mercenaries outside of Laconia and the Peloponnese. They also handed over Ionian cities to Persia and unlawfully seized the Cadmeia in Thebes under Phoibidas. The stunning Theban victory at Leuctra further weakened Sparta, as did the dismantling of the Peloponnesian League and the establishment of the Arcadian and Achaean Leagues, which limited Spartan influence. The invasion of Laconia in 370 BCE and the Theban enforcement of Messenia’s independence also played significant roles. Furthermore, the Spartans misjudged the rise of the Macedonian kingdom.
The Battle of Megalopolis in 331/30 BCE hastened the decline of Spartiate hoplites, severely diminishing their numbers. Following the Lamian War of 323/22 BCE, Sparta stood as the last fully independent state in Greece, albeit mainly because it was deemed unworthy of conquest. Despite various attempts by Spartan kings in the late fourth and third centuries BCE to reform the state, such as Agis IV, Cleomenes III, and Nabis, these efforts proved unsuccessful. One aspect, however, remained consistent: Spartans demonstrated that Laconia was home to some of the most fearsome warriors in Greece.
Today, the modern city of Sparta stands proudly amongst the ancient remnants, its population flourishing with over 35,000 inhabitants. Amidst the vestiges of the past, three remarkable sites remain standing, bearing witness to the city’s rich heritage: the sacred sanctuary of Artemis Orthia, snuggled beside the flowing Eurotas River, the temple of Athena Chalcioecus, known as the “Bronze House,” perched atop the acropolis, and the early Roman theater nestled just below.
Yet, the true tale of Sparta’s fate is far more complicated than commonly portrayed. It was neither a decline in morality, foreign policy blunders, nor internal corruption that sealed its destiny. Instead, it was the very triumph of military genius that led to both Sparta’s downfall and, by extension, the failure of Greece. However, separating the truth of Sparta’s legacy from the guises of mythology proves to be a challenging undertaking. Complicating matters further, many of the ancient accounts that have survived were penned by non-Spartans, necessitating a cautious approach when deciphering their narratives.
Indeed, history summons us to separate fact from fiction, to sift through the records of time with a careful eye.
All images were sourced from Google Images.
