Mummification in Ancient Egypt

The Prologue of Preservation: Exploring the Brief Background of Egyptian Mummification

Ancient Egypt stood out for its deep respect for afterlife rituals and customs, dating back to between 5000 and 4000 BCE. Mummification was essential to their beliefs, reflecting the idea that death was not an end but a beginning. This practice was rooted in their conviction that physical preservation was necessary for the afterlife, a concept deeply embedded in their culture.

The Egyptians deeply feared the decay of the body after death, seeing it as a threat to the universal order. Mummification was crucial for preserving the individual’s entirety for the afterlife, protecting against decay, and maintaining the person’s identity. This process, along with elaborate funeral rituals, aimed to safeguard the deceased’s well-being in the next world. Such practices reflected the Egyptian belief in the cycle of life, death, and rebirth, and their connection to the movements of the heavens.

The ancient Egyptian mortuary texts, known as the Book of the Dead, reveal the sanctity with which they held the preservation of the physical form. One excerpt captures this conviction with clarity:

“My body is eternal, immune to decay and the passage of time.”

Mummification was indeed a cornerstone of Egyptian culture, lasting from around 2600 BCE until the 7th century CE, when the Muslims ended this ancient polytheistic tradition. Herodotus, the Greek historian, noted that Egyptians used three mummification methods based on affordability. The process aimed to prevent decay by removing organs and drying out the body.

In one method, cedar oil was injected into the body to dissolve the stomach and intestines, which were then drained. A simpler method simply removed the intestines and used natron for drying.

The materials used in mummification were chosen for their preservation properties. Natron salt was key, along with resins like pine, cedar, and juniper oils, and other substances like mastic, beeswax, myrrh, bitumen, cassia, onions, lichen, henna, and gum Arabic. These materials were part of the complex preservation process, highlighting the Egyptians’ commitment to ensuring eternal life through meticulous methods.

The Pyramid Texts: Ancient Egypt’s Window into the Afterlife

The Pyramid Texts are truly genuine witnesses to this ancient tradition, imparting immense insights into the ancient civilization’s religious beliefs and funerary rituals. These texts, snuggled within the sanctuaries of the Old Kingdom, have survived the eons and continue to bewitch contemporary scholars.

The Gateway to Eternity: King Unas and the Birth of a Tradition

Journeying back to a bygone era, we find ourselves in the reign of King Unas (born around 2375 BCE). As the ninth ruler of the Fifth Dynasty of Egypt, he left his mark in history with the introduction of these aforementioned Pyramid Texts. Within the sacred confines of his monumental pyramid, Unas bestowed upon the world a tradition that would last ages, enrapturing the imaginations of kings and queens in the succeeding Sixth to Eighth Dynasties.

Historically divided into six distinct groups, these texts provide a holistic understanding of the Egyptian reverence and obsession with the deceased and their journey into the afterlife. In the domain of funeral rituals, the unison of magic and incantations unlocked the path to protection, guarding the departed from perilous creatures lurking beyond the veil. And then there are those rituals that were performed in front of tombs, the full meanings of which remain partly mysterious.

Ancient Hymns and Worship

Probing deeper into the Pyramid Texts, we discover an evocative array of hymns that relate to the spiritual essence of the pyramid builders. These ancient religious hymns transport the deceased to a realm where earthly boundaries dissolve, allowing the soul to commune with the divine.

As mortals set off on their final journey, personal incantations became their guide through the enigmatic realms of the netherworld. These intimate verses, whispered by the departed, held the key to transcendence. Within their cryptic words lay the power to tackle the perils and tribulations of the afterlife, leading the deceased toward eternal serenity.

However, to truly grasp the origins of the Pyramid Texts and how they came to be, let us venture further back into the depths of time, uncovering their emergence after countless centuries of experimentation and refinement.

The Journey to Mummification

Before the Old Kingdom, ancient Egyptians began experimenting with ways to preserve bodies, leading to the development of mummification. They buried the dead in shallow graves, positioning them like sleepers or in a fetal posture, symbolizing a temporary rest or the potential for rebirth. These early practices reflected their deep beliefs about life after death and set the stage for more sophisticated mummification techniques.

In ancient Egypt, the process of “natural mummification” occurred as bodies buried in shallow graves were naturally preserved by the dry, hot environment. This method, facilitated by the sand and climate, allowed bodies to dry out, leaving behind skin and bone. Over time, Egyptians observed these natural effects and incorporated their understanding into the Pyramid Texts, highlighting their desire for physical integrity after death despite natural decay and the threats of grave robbers.

As burial practices evolved, Egyptians transitioned from simple sand graves to more sophisticated mud-brick tombs, which, while protecting the bodies from external elements, also accelerated decay due to the lack of environmental preservation. This shift led to the search for better preservation techniques.

Discoveries in the Predynastic period introduced natron and resin as preservatives, marking a significant advancement in mummification practices. The use of linen for wrapping bodies became prevalent during the Archaic Period, as evidenced by the well-preserved arm of a royal, decorated with bracelets, found at Hierakonpolis.

Despite these advancements, the Egyptians faced challenges in preserving organs and soft tissues, with the methods of the Old Kingdom proving inadequate for complete preservation. The Pyramid Texts reflect the Egyptians’ deep-seated belief in resurrection and the importance of physical preservation for the afterlife, though our understanding of these practices is limited by the scarcity of physical evidence and the looting of tombs. Now, while the surviving remains, primarily from elite individuals, offer a glimpse into the embalming techniques of the time, much about their methods remains a mystery.

The Process of Mummification

The Pyramid Texts provide even deeper insights into the complex rituals of the Old Kingdom than what has been mentioned thus far. Within these ancient scriptures lie references to the various stages that guided the preservation of the deceased. Among these sacred steps, purification is seen as a vital facet, thoroughly mixed with the divine presence of the (idolatrized) sun god, Re. Then there is the procedure of organ removal, wherein the (idolatrized) deities Anubis and the Four Sons of Horus assumed key roles. However, within the passages of the texts, contradictions emerge, perplexing scholars and hinting at the evolving nature of mummification practices.

The Elusive Heart

When it comes to mummification, a peculiar absence catches the eye — the heart, seemingly excluded from the process during the era of the Old Kingdom. Though physical evidence is lacking, a passage within the Pyramid Texts alludes to the removal of the heart from the body. This intriguing revelation invites contemplation, evoking questions about the reasoning behind this deviation from the expected norm. The heart, believed to be the vessel of the soul, takes center stage in this mysterious chapter, offering a tantalizing glimpse into the ancients’ complex understanding of human nature.

The Decay of Flesh

The Pyramid Texts also reveal the ancient Egyptians’ awareness of the body’s decay after death. Without embalming practices, these texts express concern over the decay and deterioration of flesh, as seen in Utterance #722, which calls for the preservation of the king’s body against rot and foul smell. This highlights their early grasp on the importance of preserving the body, despite a lack of formal mummification knowledge.

The Art of Preservation

Discoveries in Naqqada graves intrigued scholars with evidence of dismembered bodies, initially thought to be part of a ritual. This practice, dating back to the Predynastic period, suggested an intentional separation of bones, including decapitations. However, later interpretations consider that tomb robbers, followed by family reburials, might have unintentionally caused this dismemberment. This tradition, conflicting with the desire for bodily integrity, eventually gave way to embalming, signifying a pivotal shift in Egyptian funerary practices.

Embalming in the Old Kingdom

In the pursuit of eternal rest, the ancient Egyptians employed the art of embalming, seeking to preserve the physical form of the departed. The intricate process took place within a secluded tent, situated atop a hill, shielding the sensitive senses from the unpleasant odors that accompanied the sacred undertaking. Clues to this practice are unearthed within the offering formulae and the Pyramid Texts, where the (idolatrized) Anubis assumes a prominent role. These texts, our invaluable source of knowledge on mummification in the Old Kingdom, intertwine the narratives of Osiris, the (idolatrized) god of resurrection, with the deceased king’s journey to eternal life. Within the obscured references to the various stages of mummification, conflicting accounts perplex our understanding, revealing complex beliefs and evolving practices.

Furthermore, Anubis, the divine guardian, took on the responsibility of cleansing the visceral organs, paralleling his titles mentioned within the Pyramid Texts, which highlight his role in embalming Osiris. To initiate this sacred path, the priest, personifying Anubis, would emulate the divine duties, perpetuating the rituals of preservation. As the mysterious process unfolds, the heart becomes a distinct entity, treated separately, while the Four Sons of Horus, though revered, remain indirectly associated with the embalming rites. Through the synthesis of solar and Osirian religions, these Pyramid Texts equate the departed king with Re, connecting his journey with purification and resurrection akin to Osiris.

The Ibu Tent: A Sanctuary of Purification

Next, purification took place within the confines of a remarkable structure called the Ibu tent. The origins of this tent are believed to be traced back to humble shelters crafted by sailors along the riverbank. These early forms gradually evolved into a sanctum of purity for the commoners, an emblem of their quest for rebirth.

Distinct from the Ibu tent, another sacred place known as Sh-ntr served a higher purpose, reserved solely for the washing of divine corpses and regal figures. Translated as the “divine booth” or “god’s tent,” this hallowed ground embraced the ritualistic act of cleansing the departed with water and natron, symbolizing their transcendence into a new existence. Intrinsically linked to the solar religion, this purification mirrored the sun god Re, who bathed before ascending the eastern horizon.

An Architectural Masterwork of Renewal

In the days of the Old Kingdom, the Ibu tent was ingeniously constructed from temporary materials such as wood or mud brick. This rectangular marvel stood proudly, its rooftop supported by sturdy wooden poles, while matting or reeds garnished its external walls. Two doors, both front and rear, connected to a vital water supply through channels that flowed with the purifying essence required for the ceremony. Hidden from prying eyes, the central part of the tent concealed the sacred rituals, leaving passers-by in wonder.

Behind the Veil of Purification

Within the heart of the Ibu tent itself, the deep rites of purification unfolded; this was essential for the rebirth of the departed. Though the scenes depicted in ancient artwork offer limited insights, this mysterious section housed the very essence of the transformative process. Mummification procedures took place within the tent’s middle portion, carefully concealed from people’s eyes.

Every aspect of the purification process was done with precision and performed with the necessary tools within the Ibu tent. Wooden boxes, depicted atop the tents of distinguished individuals such as Merrewka, Qar, and Idu, housed the equipment utilized by the lector priests in their sacred duties. Elaborate jars, baskets, and various hieroglyphic signs decked the sacred space, symbolizing the complexities of the ritual. A pair of sandals, the embodiment of an earthly journey’s end, rested in harmonious unity with the symbol of the (idolatrized) goddess Isis, signifying protection and guidance.

W’bt: Where Mortal Veils Unraveled

During the Old Kingdom, references to the w’bt, wt, and w’bt nt wt emerge as significant allusions to the sacred “funerary workshop.” Within these halls, embalmers carried out solemn rituals and services for the departed. Three sides of this revered space were constructed with enduring stone, forming a sanctuary that welcomed eternity. Interestingly, the side housing the main entrance stood devoid of this material, perhaps symbolizing the passage between life and death.

An intriguing determinant associated with the w’bt is mw, a representation/symbolization of water’s life-giving essence. Within the context of funerary practices, mw represented the vital element employed in purification, an integral facet of the embalming process. In the texts of the Old Kingdom, w’bt appeared in two distinct forms. The first, singular in nature, referred to the physical space where mummification procedures took place. However, as the Old Kingdom neared its end, the w’bt workshop yielded to the pr-nfr, the “house of perfection.”

The Embalmers: Revealing Ancient Customs

Glimmers of understanding regarding the embalmers of the Old Kingdom are gleaned from a patchwork of scenes and scattered texts. Within funeral depictions from this era, two significant figures show themselves to us, orchestrating the religious and funerary rituals that guide the deceased from the realms of death to their final resting place. The principal individual is the lector priest, draped in sacred vestments, often captured in artwork, clutching a papyrus scroll. Alongside him, the wty, a figure not entirely known to us yet; the wty performs solemn rites in the presence of the departed or their statue. Derived from the word wt, meaning “to wrap” or “to embalm,” the title wty signifies the binder of mummy wrappings, personifying the role of the embalmer.

Journeys of Passage: From House to Workshop

In Old Kingdom funerals, two essential stages unfolded: The initial phase commenced with a solemn procession, transporting the departed from their earthly abode to the sacred realm of the embalmers’ workshop. The second phase comprised the transformative journey from the workshop to the sacred tomb, a final resting place enveloped in mystique and reverence. Remarkably, within the tomb of Ankhmaher at Saqqara, dating back to the Sixth Dynasty, a thorough depiction portrays the transition from the deceased’s house to the purification tent, offering a glimpse into the rich customs of the time.

Guardians of Eternal Rest: Figures Caped in Purpose

In this mystical field of rituals and passages, individuals adorned with titles linked with the word “wt” assumed crucial roles in safeguarding the mortal remains. Among them, the embalmer and the overseer of embalmers stood with ordinary garments, a scarf gracefully draping over their shoulders, as we mentioned earlier. Clasping a staff and scepter, the overseer of embalmers held multifaceted responsibilities, serving as the Seal-Bearer of the (idolatrized) god, Chief of the Embalmers, and Inspector of the Embalmers. Alongside them, the mysterious Embalmer of Anubis played his part in this sacred ritual. Lector priests and the treasurer of the god joined this somber entourage, summoned to the house of the deceased at the very moment of passing. Together, they would go on a solemn journey across the Nile, escorting the departed to the West Bank.

Within the intricate rituals surrounding death and purification, the precise role of the embalmers in the initial stages remains masked in ambiguity. It is believed that these skilled individuals tended to the body post-mortem, prior to its entry into the purification tent and embalming workshop. As the journey progressed, the tomb was no longer referred to as a final resting place, but rather as a destination similar to the embalming workshop. The scenes captured within the tomb of Pepiankh at Meir shed light on this transition, where the lector priest is seen engaging in the “beatification” rite, as evidenced by the descriptive text: sdt in hry-hbt, “Reading the [beatification rite] by the lector priest.”

Return to Purity: Reverence within the Tent

Before the body was laid to rest, an additional visit to the purification tent took place, an act imbued with immense significance. In Pepiankh’s tomb, for example, this reverential moment is illustrated in vivid detail, accompanied by the descriptive scene: sms r ibw, “going to the tent of purification.” Within these scenes, the embalmer’s primary duty was to perform the sacred ritual known as s3ht, portrayed in the offering scenes. Though the exact meaning of s3ht remains elusive, it is often associated with concepts of “glorification” or “beatification,” encapsulating the essence of transcending mortal limitations.

Exploring the Structure of Mummification

In this section, we shall explore the structure of the embalming ritual in ancient Egypt, as revealed through carefully preserved texts. These ancient texts provide us with invaluable insights into the most common and general practices employed during the mummification process.

Throughout the extensive 70-day mummification ritual, a significant phase involved the careful wrapping of various body parts. Remarkably, this complicated wrapping process itself spanned approximately 40 days, as evidenced by inscribed jars discovered in tombs located in Saqqara, Hebes, and Abusir. While the exact details regarding the removal of intestines, brain, or dehydration remain uncertain due to the absence of the initial columns in the lost text, it is highly improbable that such explicit procedures were mentioned, given their sensitive and sacred nature. These operations played a crucial role in the transformation of the deceased into a venerated spirit and the corpse into a mummy.

To achieve these profound physical and social transformations, anointing, wrapping, and the recitation of liturgical spells were employed. Consequently, the actual mummification process took place during the final 40 days of the comprehensive embalming procedure, serving as the primary focus of the surviving text and manual sections.

Now, let us examine the thoroughly arranged instructions within the 12 manual sections.

I. The initial phase of the embalming ritual revolved around the purification of the deceased. This sacred process aimed to cleanse the spirit and prepare it for its transcendental journey.

II. Following the purification, the head of the deceased was anointed with fragrant myrrh oil. This aromatic substance symbolized the reverence and honor bestowed upon the departed.

III. Moving onward, the entire body was anointed, starting from the shoulders and extending down to the soles of the feet. The anointing process involved a conscientious blend of ten distinct oils derived from both plant and animal sources. This congruent mixture served as a divine elixir, infusing the body with sacred properties.

IV. The bodily organs were delicately placed within a faience vessel, carefully enveloped in a potent ointment referred to as the “perspiration of the gods.” This symbolic designation possibly alluded to bodily fluids such as blood or lymph, representing the essence of life. Following this treatment, the viscera were temporarily stored in a protective box, awaiting further preparations.

V. A critical stage entailed the embalming of the back. The lifeless form was gently turned onto its stomach, and the back was anointed with precious ointments before the application of exquisite textiles. Typically, two varieties of linen were employed for this purpose. Notably, the stomach and chest regions were exempt from embalming, as the focus during this phase concentrated on the visceral cavity. It is believed that linen sheets and bandages enfolded the upper portion of the body, leaving the incision area accessible for the subsequent placement of internal organs, as shall be elucidated in the following chapter.

VI. The previously anointed and potentially wrapped internal organs were then reverently inserted into the thoracic and abdominal cavities. Once this crucial step was completed, the body underwent a filling process using substances known as “remedy” or “medicament.” These carefully selected materials aimed to preserve and fortify the physical vessel, ensuring its endurance throughout eternity.

VII. Having anointed and wrapped the upper body and internal organs, the ritual now turned its attention to the diligent treatment of the fingers. Artificial nails crafted from precious metals, such as gold and electrum, decorated the fingers and toes. Following this adornment, fine strips of red linen were carefully wrapped around these digits, demonstrating the utmost care and attention given to even the smallest details.

VIII. A significant emphasis was placed on the ultra-careful treatment of the deceased’s head, marking the first appearance of the chief embalmer. It was under their careful supervision that the god’s sealer, a venerated priest, anointed both the interior and exterior of the mummy’s head and face. Four cloth coverings were delicately positioned on the forehead, face, ears, and back of the head, secured in place with skillfully applied bandages. Following this, rolls of fine linen were punctiliously placed upon and around the ears, forehead, cheeks, chin, back of the head, and eyes, as well as inside the mouth and nose. Once the head and its orifices were anointed and wrapped with bandages and linen rolls, a two-finger-width bandage was carefully swaddled around the head, providing us with the only dimension specified in the text. Curiously, no further references were made to the dimensions, quality, or form of the textiles employed.

IX. Returning to the head, a subsequent anointment with myrrh and a fatty substance, potentially sourced from a cow, was performed. This step harkened back to the procedures outlined in Step VII, ensuring the continuation of the sacred rites.

X. This stage centered on the left hand, which had already undergone the application of golden nails and further wrapping. The hand, clenched in a fist-like position, was anointed before a mixture of specific seeds, natron, and bitumen was placed within the palm. The palm was then gently wrapped with bandages, and the fingers extended to allow for the placement of a golden ring on one digit. Following that, the left hand was securely bound with bandages, assuming its clenched position once more. An additional anointment with the aforementioned seed mixture, natron, and bitumen covered the outer surface of the hand. A unique plant, fashioned into 36 knots, along with an acacia pod and a bit of acacia resin, was applied to the hand and affixed with gum resin from the same acacia tree. A bandage bearing the image of Hapi, the (idolatrized) deity associated with the Nile’s inundation, was positioned on the hand’s exterior and covered with two distinct types of cloth. Furthermore, a bandage embellished with the image of Isis, intricately folded six times, was nestled within the hand and concealed by a cloth of similar nature. Finally, the left hand was enveloped with a final bandage, concluding this complex stage.

XI. The following phase centered on the right hand, commencing with anointment using fragrant unguents. Following this, the palm of the hand received a mixture consisting of specific seeds, natron, and bitumen, skillfully secured with a viscous substance. A bandage, also adorned with depictions of Isis and Nephthys, painted in striking red ink, was positioned on the hand’s outer surface. Additionally, a bandage, elaborately folded twelve times, displaying the images of Re and Min, found its place within the palm. Orpiment, symbolizing the radiant sun, was utilized for the depiction of Re, while ochre represented Min’s association with the moon. Finally, the right hand was draped with a unique cloth and enveloped with two distinct types of bandages.

XII. The final stage of the process pertained to the legs and feet. The soles, lower and upper legs were anointed first with unguents, followed by a fragrant mixture of aromatic compounds, bitumen, and finely ground precious stones. The toes and the front of the foot were then delicately wrapped with fine yarn. Two bandages, each decorated with the depiction of an antithetical pair of jackals, were positioned upon the feet. Then, the legs were gracefully covered with a particular type of sheet, and the feet were once again encased in yarn and royal linen. Moving upward, a mixture consisting of seeds, natron, and bitumen was applied to the knee, firmly affixed using gum resin derived from an ebony tree. Additionally, twelve knots crafted from the fibers of a specific plant were richly fashioned and placed upon the right leg, while a bandage, similarly featuring twelve knots, covered the left leg. To conclude, the legs received a final anointment with unguents, bringing this comprehensive stage to a close.

Thus, the instructions outlined in the manual sections dictated the anointing of the mummy, the individual wrapping of its limbs, the gilding of fingers and toes, and the embalming and placement of bodily organs within their respective cavities. However, no explicit mention was made regarding the presence of an outer envelopment, a mask, cartonnage, or mummy shroud, leaving these aspects open to interpretation.

By adhering to this meticulous sequence of rituals and treatments, the embalming process transformed the mortal remains into a vessel of eternal significance, honoring the deceased and securing their divine journey beyond earthly realms.

Mummification in the Old Kingdom: A Deeper Look

Now, let’s explore the refined methods employed by the skilled embalmers of the Old Kingdom in particular.

Molding: Breathing Life into the Wrappings

Among the techniques utilized during the Old Kingdom, the practice of molding held a significant place. Highly linked with the art of wrapping, this method sought to immerse the linen coverings with a remarkable semblance of life. Resin and plaster served as the mediums through which the embalmers achieved this astonishing feat.

The embalmers of the Third Dynasty, however, revealed a strong realization as they carefully wrapped the remains of the deceased: the soft tissues beneath the wrappings had decayed, necessitating a novel approach. Drawing inspiration from the lavish attire and adornments worn by individuals in their lifetime, the embalmers donned the mummified bodies with garments and ornaments, creating a lifelike appearance. Thus, the art of molding found its place alongside the intricate process of wrapping.

Through the miraculous preservation of a single foot unearthed in the mid-20th century, we gain invaluable insights into the embalming process of the Third Dynasty. This remarkable discovery reveals that the embalmers would cover the foot with linen infused with resin, carefully sculpting the tendons and molding the toes to replicate their natural form. A delicate layer of linen would be added post-sculpting, adding a final touch of authenticity. This unique representation of meticulousness and artistry exemplifies the essence of the molding method during this era.

The Fifth Dynasty’s Artistic Flourish

As the Old Kingdom progressed into the Fifth Dynasty, the embalmers’ approach to molding underwent a significant transformation. Emphasizing body details as the focal point of their craft, they painstakingly sculpted various body parts that were destined to fade away after burial. This renewed focus on the artistry of molding infused the mummified forms with an otherworldly beauty, transcending the mortal realm.

In their tireless quest for perfection, the embalmers of the Old Kingdom experimented with different materials to ensure the longevity and stability of the mummification process. Resin, a remarkable substance known for its preservative properties, became a cherished tool. Embalmers skillfully applied resin-soaked linen beneath the wrappings, serving both as a response to the decay discovered beneath and as a secure fixing agent. Additionally, the Fifth and Sixth Dynasties introduced the innovative use of plaster as an alternative to resin for external wrappings, although this practice did not become standardized, even for the pharaohs.

Organ Removal and Preservation

As the Old Kingdom advanced into the Fourth Dynasty, the embalmers realized something — the Molding method alone could not ensure the preservation of the bodies. It became evident that the delicate organs and soft tissues would decompose beneath the linen wrappings once the resin had dried. Thus, a new chapter in the art of mummification unfolded — one that involved the elaborate removal of decayed body parts, including the viscera and brain.

Royal Revelation: The Case of Queen Hetepheres

The discovery of Queen Hetepheres’ tomb reveals early Egyptian mummification techniques. In her burial chamber, a chest contained evidence of her organs being treated with a 3% Natron solution, highlighting advancements in preservation methods. Further exploration into Old Kingdom tombs shows that organ removal was a common practice, with recesses in the walls for storing viscera, reflecting the pedantic nature of mummification.

The Art of Stuffing: Shaping the Body’s Form

In their quest for perfection, the embalmers of the Old Kingdom employed a variety of techniques to shape and mold the mummified bodies. As they removed the entrails, stuffing materials were placed within the abdominal cavities. This unique practice, exemplified by the presence of vegetable materials, reveals the embalmers’ pursuit of crafting a lifelike form before the dehydrating process commences. Though a solitary instance from this era, it illuminates the ingenuity and artistry entwined within the mummification rituals.

In the Old Kingdom, the removal of the brain during the embalming process remained an intriguing and irregular practice. Although not a standardized practice during this period, scattered cases shed light on the embalmers’ occasional endeavors to delicately extract this vital organ. Whether through the ethmoid bone or the magnum hole at the base of the skull, ancient texts, and archaeological remnants offer interesting hints of their methods. Notably, the supposed mummy of King Seneferu reveals traces of resin within the skull, indicating that the embalmers would employ stuffing materials to fill the void after the brain had been thoroughly removed.

Dehydration Unveiled

Since time and memorial, nature’s touch played a crucial role in the desiccation of mortal remains. The arid sands and Egypt’s unique environment acted as natural agents, drawing out the body’s fluids and moisture, and preserving its delicate form. However, as burial practices evolved, transitioning from simple oval pits to elaborate tombs fashioned with wooden or mud brick walls and roofs, a transformative shift occurred: The body became isolated from its natural context, accompanied by the introduction of linen wrappings and the confinement within coffins. These developments, while showcasing the sophistication of burial rituals, inadvertently led to the complete decomposition of soft tissues and the decay of once-preserved bodies.

The Sacred Elixir: Natron’s Revered Role

In the Old Kingdom, salt natron was highly coveted for its desiccating prowess. This precious compound, sourced from across Wadi el-Natron in the western Delta, surpassed the sands of old, assuming a new role in preserving the corporeal form. A balanced blend of sodium carbonate and sodium bicarbonate comprised its chemical composition, endowing natron with its transformative powers. And yet, within this alchemical masterpiece, the impurities of sodium chloride and sulfate remained, an enigmatic touch enriching the sacred preservation ritual.

Ancient samples bear witness to the varying proportions of these miraculous compounds, where sodium carbonate and bicarbonate ascend to greater prominence. It is their delicate chemistry that orchestrates the dehydration process, which turns mortal remains into timeless relics. While sodium chloride and sulfate may seem extraneous, they imbue the preservation ritual with an air of mystique, their presence whispered but undeniable.

The ancient Egyptians, guardians of tradition, formed a deep connection with this prized natron substance, entrusting it with the task of preservation. As the Old Kingdom ushered in an era of refined burial practices, the body became immersed in natron, undergoing a great transformation. Through the process of desiccation, the body’s fluids and moisture were extracted, creating an environment where preservation could flourish. The alchemical combination of sodium carbonate and bicarbonate acted as catalysts, delicately balancing the scales of preservation, while the impurities of sodium chloride and sulfate contributed their mysterious essence to the sacred ritual.

The Ancient Art of Wrapping

The wrapping technique is another important aspect in the subsequent stages of the mummification process. Its origins can be traced back to the mystifying graves of Hierakonpolis, around 3400 BCE. During these early years, the Egyptians ingeniously enrobed the deceased in the supple skins of animals, such as gazelles or goats. This innovative wrapping material adeptly accommodated the contracted position in which the departed were lovingly placed. However, as time passed, a new era of mummification ushered in a more novel approach.

From the dawn of 3400 BCE, a highly-prized fabric seized the limelight — linen. It opened out its elegant fibers to become the ultimate wrapping material. These linens, lovingly referred to as wt, tinged with the very essence of “embalming” or “embalmer,” expressed the essence of this ancient practice. During this period, wrapping transcended its mere protective purpose; it became an act of sacred veneration, a shroud concealing the divine.

To safeguard the body from the sands of time, wrapping guarded against the erosiveness of the desert. As the departed were laid to rest in their final resting places, this diligent wrapping method prevented the encroaching sand from obscuring the deceased’s eternal slumber. Yet, beneath this shield, an unintended consequence arose, as the isolation from the natural desiccation factor of the sand hindered the body’s preservation.

Wrappings of the Elite and the Humble

In the era of the Old Kingdom, rich social hierarchies adorned the customs of wrapping with a diverse array of traditions. The noble and esteemed, such as the royalty and high officials, were enshrouded in fine sheets of linen. A palpable aura of prestige enveloped their remains, mirroring their exalted positions in life. On the other hand, the less fortunate found solace in materials that dated back to the Predynastic era: humble mats, weathered animal skins, or recycled cloth. Wrappings of the past cradled their departed souls, evoking a modest yet expressive farewell.

Linen’s Artistic Alchemy

As the Third Dynasty dawned, the artisans of mummification elevated their craft to unprecedented heights. With masterful skill, they molded rich details upon the linen wrappings, bestowing a surreal semblance of life upon the departed. A stunning example was discovered in the burial chamber beneath Djoser’s Step Pyramid, where a left foot found its resting place. Swathed in the finest linen, the embalmers, defying the boundaries of mortality, crafted imitation toes over the real ones. This charming artistry breathed an ethereal essence into the eternal form, immortalizing the departed in a guise of sublime beauty.

During the Fourth Dynasty, the embalmers applied a revolutionary technique that breathed new life into the ancient art of wrapping. Linen, infused with resin, became the medium of choice, securing both the preservation and the scrupulously crafted form of the departed. The body of Ranefer, a demonstration of this artistic transformation, received a shroud that went far beyond the conventional. Embalmers skillfully molded and painted facial features before pouring liquid resin upon the external wrappings.

With a smooth touch, the surfaces of these wrappings acquired an appealing “stony hardness.” Egyptologists of old, fascinated by it, dubbed it the “resinous mask,” for it immortalized the face and the intricate details of the wig. Black strands of hair, eyes decorated in green, and a mouth painted in vibrant red breathed a semblance of life into the eternal vessel.

The Eternal Judge’s Enigma

During the Fifth Dynasty, the body of Judge Setka became a timeless reflection of the embalmers’ artistry. Linen, not only wrapping the body but also serving as stuffing material, embraced every contour with total devotion. Notably, the penis, molded in linen, reflected the embalmers’ commitment to preserving even the most intimate aspects of the departed. Yet, a remarkable development graced this era — the use of plaster to mold the facial features and particulars of the body. Though the internal wrappings yielded to the ravages of time, their interactions with the skin left a strong mark throughout the ages.

As the Fifth and Sixth Dynasties unfolded, a harmonious union between linen and plaster came to light. Twelve bodies discovered in Giza bore witness to this transformative collaboration. Linen, enrobed in a delicate layer of plaster, covered not only the head but also, at times, extended its reach to envelop the entire body. It seemed that the embalmers, shrouded within the confines of the coffin, embellished the surface and sides of the body with plaster, anointing it with a palpable sense of permanence.

During the Old Kingdom, however, over thirty-seven linen strips were applied, each one meticulously covering the body with intense care. Snuggled betwixt these layers, linen pads delicately sculpted a gentle curvature, bestowing upon the departed a graceful and dignified form.

The Sacred Passage of Time

An inscription etched within the tomb of Queen Mersyankh speaks of a remarkable feat accomplished in the preservation of her mortal vessel — a process that extended for an astounding 272 days. Such a protracted duration was necessitated by the implementation of natron, an extraordinary concoction of unequaled significance. This account, however, is not an isolated occurrence within the chronicles of the Old Kingdom, for it merely grazes the surface of an enigmatic practice that prevailed throughout this wondrous epoch.

Journeying further into the depths of regal burial customs, we unearth yet another revelation concerning the relationship between embalming and burial. It is within Sendjemib’s tomb, from the Fifth Dynasty, that we encounter an elusive riddle pertaining to the temporal realm. The veil of uncertainty encases the precise duration between the embalming ritual and the final resting place of the departed. The cryptic text hints at multiple possibilities, with the potential span oscillating between 455, 380, or even 608 days.

From Natron to Myrrh: The Alchemy of Preservation

Extensive research has shed light on the varying degrees of preservation achieved through different methods of mummification. Bodies mummified using the third method suffered more pronounced damage from bacteria, fungi, and insects compared to those treated with the second and royal methods. The highest level of protection was observed in bodies mummified using the costly and exclusive royal method. This disparity can be attributed to the specific utilization of plant materials in the second and royal methods.

In the second method, cedar oil played an instrumental role. It was not only injected into the body but also employed as a vital agent for treating body cavities after cleansing with palm wine. Cedar oil contains essential components, including α-pinene, myrcene, limonene, terpinolene, and α-terpinene, which exhibit potent antibacterial, antifungal, and insect-repellent properties. The inclusion of these compounds likely contributed to the enhanced preservation observed in mummies treated with this method.

During the Third Intermediate and Roman Periods, pine oil emerged as a prominent ingredient. The essential oil derived from pine encompassed β-thujene, α-pinene, β-pinene, and bornyl acetate, among other constituents, which demonstrated antibacterial effects against both gram-positive and gram-negative strains, in addition to antifungal properties.

Juniper, prevalent during the First Intermediate Period, shared similar effects to conifer oil. It played a role in preservation through its utilization.

Mastic, employed during the New Kingdom, Third Intermediate Period, and Ptolemaic Period, contained essential oil components such as verbenone, α-terpineol, linalool, and pentacyclic triterpenes. These elements exhibited antiseptic and antimicrobial effects, contributing to the preservation process.

Myrrh, utilized in the New Kingdom, possessed essential oil ingredients like α-pinene, sesquiterpene hydrocarbons, δ-elemene, β-bourbonene, furanosesquiterpenes, and germacrene-type compounds. These compounds were effective in repelling and eliminating pests, making them potent arthropod repellents.

Cassia, dating back to approximately 2,600 BCE, incorporated essential oil compounds such as cinnamaldehyde, linalool, eugenol, and 1,8 cineol. These components exhibited antimicrobial, antiseptic, and antifungal properties, alongside their effectiveness in warding off insects.

Onions, employed from the New Kingdom until the Third Intermediate Period, contained compounds such as alliin, γ-glutamlcysteins, steroids, saponins, and sapogenins. These compounds displayed antimicrobial effects and demonstrated significant resilience against UV light.

Lichen, utilized during the New Kingdom, possessed noteworthy compounds like usnic acid, sphaerophorin, pannarin, and paraconic acid. These substances showcased antibacterial and antifungal properties, with usnic acid enantiomers exhibiting substantial deterrent effects and toxicity toward larvae.

Henna, employed during the New Kingdom, featured compounds like lawsone, which exhibited antibacterial effects, further contributing to the preservation process.

The Art of Eternal Rest: Mummification in Later Egyptian Eras

During the Second Intermediate Period (1783 to 1540 BCE) and the New Kingdom (1570–44 to 1069 BCE), the study of elite and royal mummies thrived. Mummification techniques evolved over time, reflecting the cultural and religious beliefs of the era. Initially, a vertical incision was made on the body’s side, which later shifted to a diagonal cut parallel to the iliac crest during Thuthmosis III’s reign. The removal of the brain often occurred through the nostril ethmoid bone route, although it was not universally practiced. Desiccation involved inserting packets of natron, a natural salt, into the body and burying it in powdered natron.

During the later part of the New Kingdom, mummies received cosmetic enhancements. False eyes crafted from onion bulbs were placed in the eye sockets, eyebrows were carefully painted, and even the noses of mummies were stuffed to maintain their shape, as displayed by the mummy of Ramesses II. There were variations in the positioning of arms during mummification, with men’s arms covering their genitalia and women’s arms laid at their sides.

Linen wrappings remained popular during this period, typically applied in a spiral pattern around the body and limbs. Innovations surfaced, such as painted shrouds like the one found in the tomb of Sennefer at Deir el-Medina. Shrouds featuring excerpts from the Book of the Dead gained prominence during the reigns of Hatshepsut and Thutmose III. Notably, these shrouds were not exclusive to royalty, as evidenced by Hatnufer, the mother of Senenmut, who possessed one.

As time progressed into the Third Intermediate Period (1077 to 664 BCE) and Late Period (664 to 332 BCE) of ancient Egypt, the mummification process underwent further modifications. In the Twenty-first dynasty, efforts were made to create a serene appearance, resembling peaceful sleep. Organs were reintroduced into the body, padding was added for a fuller and more lifelike form, and artificial eyes made of stone or glass were inserted into the eye sockets. Colored washes and makeup enhanced the appearance, with careful attention given to the eyebrows, lips, and hairstyle. Shrouds were decorated with painted depictions of Osiris, accompanied by texts to safeguard the deceased on their journey to the afterlife.

However, during the mid-Twenty-second dynasty, the emphasis on lifelike representation diminished, possibly influenced by economic and political challenges or evolving religious beliefs. Elite mummies from this period still received torso packing with linen and resins.

Over time, the mummification process became less consistent. Evisceration (the removal of internal organs) was occasionally incomplete or omitted, leading to inadequate drying and flesh decay. Resins and oils were applied generously, contributing to the mummies’ deterioration. When the internal organs were removed, they were wrapped and placed between the legs. Embalmers continued to use resins mixed with oil and beeswax to coat the mummies, occasionally incorporating bitumen, which darkened the bodies. The positioning of the mummies’ arms varied, sometimes placed by their sides or over their genitals. Shrouds were secured with horizontal bandages, occasionally forming an “X” pattern across the chest, resembling the leather braces on the body and coffin.

During the Saite Period (664 to 525 BCE), the practice of using canopic jars to hold the preserved organs resurfaced as a standard funerary tradition. This resurgence may have been influenced by a renewed interest in ancient burial practices or the existence of texts detailing these customs. Wrapping styles varied, ranging from spiral bandaging with pads to final shrouds secured by wide bandages. Some mummies featured elaborate coffered bandaging, reminiscent of the Late Ptolemaic and Roman periods. Notably, there were female mummies with similar arm positions but lacking surviving outer wrappings, suggesting a potential later date.

Mummification in the Graeco-Roman Era

During the Graeco-Roman to Coptic Periods (332 BCE to 641 CE), the practices of mummification in ancient Egypt exhibited significant variations. The discrepancies in preserved remains can be attributed to factors such as social status, embalming methods, and religious convictions. Throughout this era, mummification experienced a notable surge, resulting in the discovery of numerous mummies belonging to men, women, and children in museum collections and excavation sites.

As time advanced, the level of preservation and meticulousness dedicated to mummification gradually declined. Evisceration and excerebration (the extraction of the brain) became less prevalent, particularly during the Roman period. When organs were extracted, they were often placed near the legs. The utilization of resinous substances, frequently blended with oil, became more widespread, rendering the mummified bodies heavier. These resins likely served the purpose of conserving poorly preserved bodies, supporting the head, and holding magical, medical, and religious significance. Consequently, many mummies exhibit a darkened appearance, although they may have originally possessed a golden hue that transformed over time. In certain Roman mummies, specific body parts such as faces and nails were prettified with gilding, emphasizing the notion of the deceased’s metamorphosis into a divine entity.

The positioning of the hands-on mummies also underwent evolution throughout different periods. During the Ptolemaic era (305 to 30 BCE), many mummies were discovered with their hands crossed over their chests or resting on their shoulders, mirroring the depiction of Osiris and symbolizing the transformation into an Osiris-like figure. In contrast, Roman mummies typically had their arms positioned by their sides, albeit with some variations.

During the Late Ptolemaic and Early Roman periods (30 BCE to 4th century CE), the focus shifted from body preservation to elaborate bandaging techniques. Mummies were enveloped in multiple layers of bandages, often arranged in sets of seven. Instructions regarding the type and placement of the bandages were occasionally inscribed directly on the fabric. Painted shrouds became increasingly prevalent, with the color red, associated with the sun, being particularly prominent. Some bandages featured woven geometric patterns incorporating different colors, reminiscent of swaddling bands depicted in later Christian art, possibly presenting the concept of rebirth. In the 3rd century CE, certain Roman mummies were wrapped in a manner similar to the practices of the Old Kingdom, showcasing painted facial features and details of clothing on the linen wrapping.

Even early Christians adopted a rudimentary form of mummification, employing desiccation techniques involving natron, resins, and oils, often without evisceration or excerebration. The bodies were swathed in linen alongside grasses and natron before being covered with shrouds. Palm ribs were occasionally added to the outer wrappings to facilitate the stacking of bodies within tombs. These sizable bundles were secured with woven tapes, commonly colored red and white, and were frequently discovered in sites like el-Hibeh and Dahshur. The practice of dressing the deceased in ordinary garments became commonplace, particularly among monks and devout individuals.

Animal Mummification

In ancient Egypt, the practice of animal mummification held tremendous significance, particularly during the Late Period, when it gained widespread recognition. This remarkable ritual became a means to both preserve and pay homage to animals, offering a glimpse into the Egyptians’ deep attachment to the natural world. Moreover, it symbolized their religious beliefs and played a strong role in asserting the uniqueness of the Egyptian identity in the face of challenges posed by foreign powers.

Animal mummies were classified into five distinct genres, each carrying its own compelling narrative. The first genre encompassed pets, for the Egyptians firmly believed in the existence of an animal’s soul, parallel to that of humans. Animals such as gazelles, monkeys, and dogs were meticulously mummified, ensuring their eternal companionship with their owners in the afterlife. With utmost care and attention to detail, these cherished companions were prepared for their everlasting journey, receiving the same level of reverence bestowed upon human mummies.

The second genre comprised victual mummies, serving a practical purpose as providers of sustenance in the afterworld. By preserving meat and poultry, these mummies ensured that the deceased would not hunger in the realms beyond. The process involved the removal of the skin from the meat, as well as the plucking and evisceration of poultry. Following the desiccation using natron, the liver, and giblets were carefully placed back inside the body cavity. Resins and oils, reminiscent of those used in human mummification, were applied to guarantee their immaculate preservation. The preservation of food also played a significant role in the evolution and success of mummification practices in ancient Egypt, reflecting the complex relationship between life and death.

The third genre focused on sacred animals, considered divine manifestations and objects of veneration during their earthly existence. Upon their demise, these highly regarded creatures were mummified, encoffined, and laid to rest in catacombs. The Apis Bull, a living representation of the (idolatrized) god Ptah, was the most renowned among these sacred animals. To prepare these creatures for their journey into the afterlife, various techniques were employed, and during the Roman era, some were even adorned with gilded embellishments, mirroring the opulence bestowed upon human mummies.

Votive offerings constituted the fourth genre, wherein animals were mummified and dedicated to specific deities. Cats, associated with pleasure and self-indulgence, were often dedicated to the (idolatrized) goddess Bastet, while ibises and baboons found their purpose as offerings to Thoth, the (idolatrized) god of writing and knowledge. Raptors and shrews were presented as tokens of reverence to the diurnal and nocturnal manifestations of Re.

Pilgrims would acquire these mummified animals and present them at shrines devoted to their respective gods. The consecration of these animals took place during special festivals, where they were paraded and subsequently buried in vast catacombs alongside countless counterparts. Regrettably, due to the sheer volume of offerings, many of these animals received hurried desiccation, anointing, and wrapping, resulting in less-than-optimal preservation. Birds, in particular, often suffered from insufficient desiccation or were hastily immersed in molten resin or pitch without proper preparation.

The fifth and final category encompassed animal mummies that defied conventional classification. These enthralling discoveries included remarkable instances such as the unearthing of five geese, positioned as a foundation offering at the funerary temple of King Thutmose III in Thebes. Additionally, animals like ibises, dogs, and monkeys found within tombs, surrounding the human remains, potentially served as effigies to aid the deceased on their journey to the afterlife. These intriguing cases added an element of mystery and fascination to the field of animal mummification, providing a strong glimpse into the complex rituals associated with death and beyond in ancient Egyptian culture.

Epilogue of Infinity

As we conclude our voyage through the mysterious realms of ancient Egypt, we are left humbled by the wisdom and eternal truths that permeate their customs and beliefs. The union of life and death, linked with the universe, shows itself as a reflection of the sophisticated interconnectedness that defines our existence.

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