More Luminaries from the Golden Age of Islam
In this article, I intend to narrate mentions of various eminent Muslim scientists and other distinguished figures from centuries past, dedicating ample attention to their remarkable contributions. It is with great delight that I present to you an elaborate introduction to these luminaries, allowing their extraordinary achievements to resurface from the depths of history and delight our admiration once more.
Al-Farabi
One such luminary was Abu Nasr Muhammad al-Farabi, also known as Alpharabius, who lived in the 9th and 10th centuries CE. A renowned philosopher, jurist, and polymath, al-Farabi was a master of many disciplines including political philosophy, metaphysics, ethics, logic, science, cosmology, mathematics, music theory, and medicine. He was held in high regard in Islamic philosophical circles, where he was referred to as “the Second Teacher,” second only to Aristotle who was known as “the First Teacher.”
One of his most notable works was the Kitab al-Musiqa al-Kabir (Grand Book of Music), in which he examined the philosophical principles of music and its cosmic qualities. Al-Farabi saw music as a powerful tool, capable of influencing the soul, and he expounded upon this in his Treatise on the Meanings of the Intellect. This treatise dealt with the therapeutic effects of music on the soul and remains a seminal work in the field of music therapy to this day. This contribution greatly helped hospitals in treating the mentally ill.
Al-Farabi was also the founder of his own school of early Islamic philosophy, known as “Farabism” or “Alfarabism”. Although his teachings were eventually overshadowed by Avicennism, Al-Farabi’s influence on science and philosophy was felt for several centuries and he was widely considered second only to Aristotle in his time.
In the field of physics, Al-Farabi wrote a treatise called al-Khalaa’ (On Vacuum), in which he pondered the nature of the void and its existence. He ultimately concluded that air volume can expand to fill available space and that the concept of a perfect vacuum was incoherent. He also wrote the first treatises on social psychology, including Social Psychology and Kitab Aaraa’ Ahl al-Madina al-Faadhila wa-Madhaatuha (Principles of the Opinions of the Citizens of the Virtuous City). In these works, Al-Farabi posited that individual perfection could not be achieved without the aid of others and that it was the innate disposition of humans to associate with one another.
Finally, Al-Farabi’s Kitab al-Qawl fi Sabab al-Manamaat (On the Cause of Dreams), which appeared as chapter 24 of his Principles of the Opinions of the Citizens of the Ideal City, was a landmark work in the field of dream interpretation. In it, he differentiated between the interpretation of dreams and the nature and causes of dreams.
Al-Farabi’s vast body of work and commentaries on the original Greek texts helped preserve classical knowledge during the Middle Ages. He exerted a strong influence on many prominent philosophers of his time, such as Avicenna and Maimonides, and his works were widely known across the world.
Al-Mas’udi
Another legendary figure was Abu al-Hasan Ali ibn al-Husayn al-Mas’udi, an Arab historian, geographer, and traveler. He was referred to as the “Herodotus of the Arabs” due to his extensive writings on various subjects, including theology, history (both Islamic and universal), geography, natural science, and philosophy. His magnum opus, Murūj al-Dhahab wa-Ma’ādin al-Jawhar (The Meadows of Gold and Mines of Gems), is a multi-volume series that blends universal history with scientific geography, social commentary, and biography.
It is said that al-Mas’udi’s maps were used by Columbus on his journey to the New World, as the Andalusian Muslims had already ventured far west (i.e., Khashkhaash ibn Saeed ibn Aswad) and had knowledge of the grand continents that lay there. Al-Mas’udi’s works beautifully represent the wisdom, erudition, and cosmopolitanism of early Muslim civilization. You might be wondering why a non-scientist is included in this article; I simply couldn’t pass up the opportunity to give a well-deserved shoutout to an Arab version of Herodotus!
Al-Battani
Then, we have the noteworthy astronomer, astrologer, and mathematician al-Battānī, also known as Albategnius. He spent the majority of his life in Raqqa, where he became one of the most celebrated astronomers of the Islamic world. Al-Battānī’s works, including his magnum opus Kitāb az-Zīj aṣ-Ṣābi’, not only refined and corrected Ptolemy’s Almagest, but also introduced new ideas and astronomical tables. His contributions to the field of astronomy have played a key role in its development around the world.
Omar Khayyam
Let’s not forget about the versatile Omar Khayyam, a polymath born in Nishapur, the former capital of the Seljuk Empire. Khayyam is remembered for his groundbreaking work in mathematics, particularly his classification and solution of cubic equations, which he approached with a unique combination of geometric and analytical methods. In addition, his contributions to astronomy, including his precise calculations of the duration of the solar year and design of the Jalali calendar, remain relevant even after nearly a millennium. He also left his mark on philosophy and Farsi poetry, cementing his place as one of the most remarkable figures of the Islamic Golden Age.
Jabir ibn Hayyan
I mentioned Jabir ibn Hayyan briefly in recent writing, but let’s uncover some of his legendary contributions to the field of chemistry, which were nothing short of extraordinary. He was the first to introduce a systematic classification of chemical substances, a feat that was unrivaled in its time and remains a milestone in the history of science. Moreover, he was the first to impart the knowledge of deriving inorganic compounds, such as sal ammoniac or ammonium chloride, from organic materials such as plants, blood, and hair.
But Jabir’s achievements do not end there, for he was also the creator of the sulfur-mercury theory of metals, a mineralogical concept that would endure for centuries and become the dominant explanation.
Ibn al-Shatir
Verily, the great astronomer, mathematician, and engineer, Abu al-Ḥasan Alāʾ al‐Dīn ʿAlī ibn Ibrāhīm al-Ansari, known to posterity as ibn al-Shatir, lived in the city of Damascus during the fourteenth century. He was held in great esteem as the head muwaqqit (aka timekeeper) of the magnificent Umayyad mosque in Damascus, where he presided over the regulation of the astronomical times of prayer.
It was during this time that he made extraordinary advances in the design of astronomical instruments and penned his most important treatise, Kitab Nihayat al-Sul fi Tashih al-Usool (The Final Quest Concerning the Rectification of Principles). In this work, he ingeniously reformed the Ptolemaic models of the celestial bodies, demonstrating a mastery that was unparalleled in his age. Indeed, his models were so convincing that, with the reservation that they were geocentric, they were nearly identical to those used by the later European astronomer, Nicolaus Copernicus.
The world has since marveled at the similarity between the two astronomers’ models, and it has been the subject of much investigation to determine the possible transmission of ibn al-Shatir’s theories to the rest of the world. Though the research on his astronomy and its later influence remains in its earliest stages, it is known that Copernicus’ model for Mercury was taken directly from ibn al-Shatir, though he did not fully understand it.
In addition to his monumental treatise, ibn al-Shatir also compiled a set of tables, displaying the values of spherical astronomical functions relating to the times of prayer. The tables were calculated using a latitude of 34°, corresponding to a location just north of Damascus, and they show such important functions as the duration of morning and evening twilight, the time of the afternoon prayer, and other standard astronomical functions.
Al-Khojandi
Abu Mahmud Hamid ibn al-Khidr al-Khojandi was another beacon of learning in the land of Transoxania, renowned for his proficiency in the celestial sciences of astronomy and mathematics. Born in the city of Khujand, he rose to prominence under the patronage of the Buwayhid Amirs, who tasked him with the establishment of an observatory near the city of Ray in Iran.
In the year 994 CE, he achieved a remarkable feat, constructing the first huge mural sextant, which was used to determine the Earth’s axial tilt (obliquity of the ecliptic) with great precision. He found that the axial tilt was 23°32’19” for that year, refuting the earlier measurements of other astronomers, such as the Indians who had determined it to be 24° and Ptolemy who found it to be 23°51′. Thus, he was able to deduce that the axial tilt was not constant, but was instead decreasing.
However, despite his groundbreaking work, Abu Mahmood Khojandi was not immune to error, as his measurement of the axial tilt was found to be slightly too small, likely due to the settling of his heavy instrument throughout the observations. Nevertheless, he remains a celebrated figure, and his legacy continues to inspire generations of scholars to this day.
In addition to his work on the axial tilt, he was also a noted scholar of Fermat’s Last Theorem, stating a special case for n = 3, though his attempted proof was incorrect. It is also uncertain whether he was the first to discover the spherical law of sines, as some have credited Abu Nasr Mansur, Abul Wafa, or Nasir al-Din al-Tusi with this discovery.
Al-Uqlidisi
In the records of Muslim mathematical achievement, let’s not forget the brilliant Abu’l Hasan Ahmad ibn Ibrahim al-Uqlidisi. This prolific mathematician contributed well to the field of mathematics, for his achievements are as enduring as they are illuminating. Born in the ancient city of Damascus and later residing in the center of learning in Baghdad, al-Uqlidisi made remarkable strides in the use of the Arabic numeral system. It was in the year 952 CE that he wrote the earliest known treatise on this subject, entitled Kitab al-Fusul fi al-Hisab al-Hindi (The Arithmetics of India).
In this work, al-Uqlidisi illuminated the world with his innovative treatment of decimal fractions, an idea that was revolutionary for its time. It is a matter of great historical significance that he carried out these calculations without deletions, thereby paving the way for future generations to build upon his foundational contributions.
Contrary to the claims made by the Iranian mathematician Jamshīd al-Kāshī in the 15th century, modern scholarship has revealed that it was al-Uqlidisi who first used decimal fractions, five centuries before al-Kāshī. Al-Uqlidisi’s appreciation of the importance of a decimal sign, and his suggestion of an appropriate one, was an insight ahead of its time and a showcasing of his mathematical genius.
Therefore, it can be said with certainty that al-Uqlidisi, and not al-Kāshī, was the first Muslim mathematician to write about decimal fractions.
Al-Karaji
Let us now turn our attention to the achievements of Abū Bakr Muḥammad ibn al Ḥasan al-Karajī, a gifted mathematician and engineer of the 10th century who flourished in the spirited cultural and intellectual hub of Baghdad.
This son of Iran left behind a legacy of mathematical works that continue to enlighten us to this day. His three principal surviving works, al-Badi’ fil-Hisab, al-Fakhri fil-Jabr wal-Muqabala, and al-Kafi fil-Hisab, demonstrate his mastery of the mathematical sciences and his exceptional aptitude for both mathematics and engineering.
While some have sought to downplay his contributions by claiming that he merely reworked the ideas of others, such as the Greek mathematician Diophantus, the vast majority of scholars recognize al-Karaji’s originality and creativity. In particular, his work in freeing algebra from geometry is widely regarded as a groundbreaking achievement that paved the way for future mathematical discoveries.
Of all his works, his book al-Fakhri fi al-Jabr wal-Muqabala is the most widely studied and admired among historians. This magnificent treatise, which survives to this day in at least four copies, provides us with a glimpse into the mind of a brilliant mathematician and the depth of his understanding of algebra.
It is also worth noting that al-Karaji was a true polymath, with interests that extended beyond the confines of mathematics. In his book Extraction of Hidden Waters, he demonstrated his strong knowledge of hydrology, making it the oldest extant text in this field. He also touched on the subject of cosmology, stating that the earth was spherical in shape and considered it to be at the center of the universe.
Al-Karaji’s work on algebra and polynomials was truly groundbreaking, and he was the first to define the rules for monomials such as x, x², x³, and their reciprocals in the cases of multiplication and division. He also gave us the first formulation of the binomial coefficients and the first description of Pascal’s triangle and is credited with the discovery of the binomial theorem.
Furthermore, it is said that in a now-lost work, al-Karaji introduced the concept of argument by mathematical induction, a seminal contribution to the field of mathematics that has continued to influence mathematical thinking for centuries to come.
Al-Jurjani
There was also another wise and learned man by the name of Zayn al-Din Sayyed Isma‘il ibn Husayn Gorgani, also known as al-Jurjani, who lived in the 12th century. A physician of royal stature from Gorgan, Iran, he was not only knowledgeable in the sciences of medicine and pharmacy, but also in the fields of theology, philosophy, and ethics. Al-Jurjani was a student of the esteemed scholars ibn Abi Sadiq and Ahmad ibn Farrokh, and at the age of 70 lunar years, he made his way to the court of the Iranian province of Khwarazm, where he served as a court physician to Khwarazm-Shah Qutb al-Din Muhammad I and later, to his son and successor, Ala al-Din Atsiz.
It was during his time in Khwarazm that al-Jurjani wrote his most comprehensive and influential work, the Farsi medical encyclopedia, the Thesaurus of the Shah of Khwarazm, dedicated to the governor of the province. This ten-volume compendium, covering various fields of medicine including anatomy, physiology, diagnosis, and various treatments, was influenced by Avicenna’s Canon of Medicine but also included al-Jurjani’s unique insights. In the field of endocrinology, al-Jurjani was one of the first to associate exophthalmos with goiter, a discovery not repeated until centuries later. He was also an innovator in insecticidal treatments and lice control.
Al-Jurjani continued to serve as a court physician until he moved to the city of Merv, where he lived until his death nearly at the age of 100 lunar years.
Sutayta al-Mahamali
We must not forget the brilliance of Sutayta al-Mahamali, daughter of the Abbasid judge Abu Abdallah al-Hussein. She was a woman of remarkable talent, widely celebrated in her time as a master of mathematics and law, her genius extolled by three of the greatest historians of her era.
Sutayta was a true polymath, excelling not only in mathematics but also in the fields of Arabic literature, hadith, and jurisprudence. It was said that she was a master of hisab (arithmetic) and fara’idh (calculating inheritance in line with Islamic law), two practical branches of mathematics well-developed in her time; she even invented solutions to equations that were later cited by other mathematicians, exhibiting her mastery of algebra.
Sutayta was also celebrated for her virtuous and modest character, for she is said to have memorized the holy Qur’an and was known for creating general solutions to problems, a logical extension of the work of great mathematicians such as al-Khwarizmi and Abu Kamil.
Her level of algebraic sophistication was so remarkable that it opened new avenues of exploration for Arabic mathematicians, perhaps even leading to the solution of cubic-type equations by her near successors, the illustrious ibn al-Haytham and Omar Khayyam. It is a shame that today, Sutayta’s legacy has been reduced to a mere historical footnote due to the limited sources available. But let us remember and celebrate her contributions to our rich cultural heritage.
Al-Jahiz
Verily, there was another man of great renown in the land of Basra, known as Abū ʿUthman ʿAmr ibn Baḥr al-Kinānī al-Baṣrī, or as he was famously called, al-Jahiz, meaning “The Bug-Eyed”. Born in the year 776 CE and departing this world in December 868/January 869, al-Jahiz was a scribe of exceptional talent, renowned for his literature, theological discourses, studies in zoology, and political-religious polemic.
It is said that al-Jahiz was a thousand years ahead of his time, for he had the foresight to understand the mechanisms that drive the evolution of animals. He wrote of three key principles, the struggle for survival, the transformation of species, and the impact on their environment. It is through his writings that the principles of natural selection are first recorded.
Ibn al-Nadim, a notable chronicler of the era, lists nearly 140 titles attributed to al-Jahiz, of which 75 still remain. Of these, his most celebrated works include Kitāb al-Ḥayawān (The Book of Animals), a seven-volume compendium on the subject of animals and their ways; Kitāb al-Bayān wal-Tabyīn (The Book of Eloquence and Exposition), a treatise on the art of communication between men; and Kitāb al-Bukhalāaʾ (The Book of Misers), a collection of tales of stinginess.
It is said that al-Jahiz met his untimely end when a pile of books he had collected in his lifetime fell upon him, smothering him. His most famous work, Kitāb al-Ḥayawān, ultimately highlights his mastery of the written word, as he enriches the reader with anecdotes, poetic descriptions, and proverbs describing over 350 species of animals. It was written in honor of Muḥammad ibn ‘Abd al-Mālik al-Zayyāt, who paid him a sum of five thousand gold coins (5., dinar) for its creation.
Though contemporary accusations of plagiarism from Aristotle’s Kitab al-Hayawan were made, later scholars have noted that there was only a limited influence from Aristotle’s work in al-Jāḥiẓ’s writings and that he may have been unaware of Aristotle’s work altogether.
Ibn Khaldun
We now have ibn Khaldun, the well-known Arab sociologist, philosopher, and historian, who was widely acknowledged as one of the greatest social scientists of Islamic history. His pioneering works in historiography, sociology, economics, and demography have earned him a place in the pantheon of Islamic luminaries. His contributions have been instrumental in shaping the foundations of modern historiography, sociology, and economics. The truth of his factual writing in his book, Muqaddama, is as relevant as ever, especially in today’s world!
Al-Tusi
Next, we have Nasir al-Din al-Tusi, the Iranian polymath who excelled in fields ranging from architecture to philosophy, medicine, science, and theology. His numerous published works on subjects such as mathematics, engineering, prose, and mysticism bear witness to his intellectual prowess.
He made numerous scientific advancements, particularly in astronomy, where he created accurate tables of planetary motion, an updated planetary model, and critiques of Ptolemaic astronomy. In addition, he made significant contributions to logic and mathematics, particularly in the fields of trigonometry, biology, and chemistry. He is widely regarded as one of the greatest scientists of Islam and is often credited as the creator of trigonometry as a mathematical discipline in its own right. Ibn Khaldun considered him to be the greatest of the later Iranian scholars.
Al-Farghani
And then there is Abū al-ʿAbbās Aḥmad ibn Muḥammad ibn Kathīr al-Farghānī, also known as Alfraganus, an astronomer at the court of the Abbasids in Baghdad and one of the most famous astronomers of the 9th century. He composed several works on astronomy and astronomical equipment, which were widely distributed in Arabic and Latin and exerted a significant influence on many scientists.
His most renowned work, Kitāb fī Jawāmiʿ ʿIlm al-Nujūmi, was an extensive summary of Ptolemy’s Almagest, containing revised experimental data. This work was even used by Christopher Columbus in his voyages to America. In addition to his contributions to astronomy, al-Farghani was also an accomplished engineer and supervised construction projects on rivers in Cairo, Egypt. The lunar crater Alfraganus bears his name to immortalize his lasting legacy.
Buzhjani
And now, we come to the brilliant Abū al-Wafā Būzhjānī, a master of mathematics and the celestial sciences from the land of Iran who was stationed in the great city of Baghdad. He was a scholar of the highest caliber, whose contributions to the field of spherical trigonometry were both innovative and profound. He was a true pioneer in the field of mathematics, as it was through his work on arithmetics for merchants that the concept of negative numbers was first introduced into Islamic texts.
Abū al-Wafā was a prolific writer, and his tables of sines and tangents, calculated at 15-degree intervals, showcased his mastery of the subject. He also introduced the world to the secant and cosecant functions, and his in-depth study of the interrelations between the six trigonometric lines associated with an arc is still widely regarded as one of the cornerstones of the discipline. His Almagest was widely read and highly regarded by astronomers in the Arabic-speaking world for centuries after his death, and it is known that he wrote several other books on related subjects that have since been lost to time.
Al-Khwarizmi
It is with great honor and admiration that I also make mention of the one and only Muḥammad ibn Mūsā al-Khwārizmī, one of the most famous names of the Ages of Enlightenment. This Iranian polymath hailing from the land of Khwarazm left a legacy of knowledge and enlightenment that has lived on throughout the ages. In the year 820 CE, he was appointed to the esteemed position of astronomer and head of the library of the House of Wisdom in Baghdad, where he flourished in his pursuits of mathematical, astronomical, and geographical pursuits.
It was in the field of mathematics that al-Khwarizmi made his most enduring contribution, for he wrote the seminal work, al-Kitāb al-Mukhtaṣar fī Ḥisāb al-Jabr wal-Muqābalah, which introduced the world to the systematic solution of linear and quadratic equations. He was the first to treat algebra as an independent discipline and introduced the methods of “reduction” and “balancing” which have since become integral to the field. He is considered the father and founder of algebra, and the very term “algebra” is derived from the title of his book.
In addition to his groundbreaking work in mathematics, al-Khwarizmi also made significant contributions to the field of astronomy. He revised Ptolemy’s Geography, providing a comprehensive listing of the longitudes and latitudes of cities and localities. He further wrote of astronomical tables and calendaric works, as well as the astrolabe and the sundial. He also made important advances in trigonometry, producing accurate tables of sines and cosines, and the first table of tangents.
Verily, the name of al-Khwarizmi has given rise to the terms algorism and algorithm, which he pioneered in, as his legacy continues to influence the world of mathematics and beyond.
Banu Musa Brothers
Next, we have three of the most spectacular minds ever known to man, the Banū Mūsā brothers (lit. Sons of Moses). They were three shining stars in the firmament of knowledge during the ninth century in Baghdad: Abū Jaʿfar Muḥammad ibn Mūsā ibn Shākir, Abū al‐Qāsim Aḥmad ibn Mūsā ibn Shākir, and al-Ḥasan ibn Mūsā ibn Shākir. They were known for their wisdom and expertise in the fields of mathematics, astronomy, and engineering.
Their magnum opus, Kitab al-Hiyal (The Book of Ingenious Devices, or literally, The Book of Tricks), demonstrates their ingenuity, as it described a hundred marvels of automata and mechanical devices, many of which have been reconstructed and still function as they did in their time. This work reveals the Banu Musas’ mastery of engineering technologies such as one-way and two-way valves, mechanical memories, and devices that respond to feedback and delays, all powered by the fluidity of water.
Their second major work, Kitab Ma’rifat Masakhat al-Ashkaal (The Book on the Measurement of Plane and Spherical Figures), was a cornerstone in the field of geometry and was frequently referred to by both Islamic and European mathematicians. The Banu Musa were associated with the astronomical observatories established by Caliph al-Ma’mun in Baghdad and were also part of the 9th-century expedition to measure the length of a degree, advancing the science of geography.
Moreover, they are credited with inventing the first music sequencer, which was the earliest form of the programmable machine, further cementing their place in the records of scientific discoveries. Although the majority of their works have been lost to time, their contributions to the advancement of knowledge will forever be remembered.
Al-Jazari
Nor can we forget the exceptional Badi’ al-Zaman (Marvel of his Time), Abu’l-ʿIzz ibn Ismāʿīl ibn ar-Razāz al-Jazarī. Al-Jazari lived in the Artuqid Dynasty of Jazira in Mesopotamia between 1136–1206 CE. This polymath was a man of remarkable talents, a scholar, inventor, mechanical engineer, artisan, artist, and mathematician, who left behind a legacy of knowledge and wisdom.
He was renowned for his work on Kitab fi Ma’rifat al-Hiyal al-Handasiyya (The Book of Knowledge of Ingenious Mechanical Devices; lit. Book in the Knowledge of Engineering Tricks), a comprehensive treatise that describes fifty mechanical devices and instructions on their construction. This work, probably published after his death in the year 1206, is considered a masterpiece in the history of technology, and al-Jazari is credited with the invention of many wonderful things, including the magnificent elephant clock.
His devices, some of which were based on earlier works, such as the monumental water clocks, were influenced by the Banū Mūsā brothers for his fountains, al-Saghani for the design of a candle clock, and Hibatullah ibn al-Husayn (d. 1139) for musical automata. Yet, al-Jazari’s true legacy lies in the improvements he made to these devices and the original innovations that he introduced, such as the camshaft, crankshaft, and crank-slider mechanism. His unique, innovative design and construction methods, such as the lamination of timber to minimize warping, the static balancing of wheels, the use of wooden templates as patterns, the use of paper models to establish designs, the calibration of orifices, the grinding of the seats and plugs of valves together with emery powder to obtain a watertight fit, and the casting of metals in closed mold boxes with sand, set al-Jazari apart as a visionary in the field of mechanics.
Indeed, in the field of mechanical engineering, al-Jazari’s contributions were numerous and groundbreaking. He is also credited with inventing the escapement mechanism in the rotating wheel, segmental gear, and mechanical controls such as metal doors, combination locks, and locks with four bolts. He also designed and built many water-raising machines, including Saqiya chain pumps, double-action suction pumps with valves and reciprocating piston motion, and the earliest-known water supply system driven by gears and hydropower. This system, built in 13th-century Damascus, supplied water to the city’s mosques and Bimaristan hospitals.
But al-Jazari’s ingenuity extended beyond practical applications; he also designed and constructed automated machines of remarkable beauty and sophistication. His hydraulic-powered moving peacocks, automatic gates, and doors integrated into elaborate water clocks stand showcase his artistry. The automatic waitress, who served water, tea, or drinks from a reservoir to a cup, is a breathtaking example of his mastery in creating humanoid automata.
The Italian Leonardo da Vinci was undoubtedly influenced by the classic automata of al-Jazari. On a side note, I must record the facts about the much-lauded Leonardo da Vinci. Despite his fame, it must be acknowledged that he was a man who rarely saw his projects to completion. The Last Supper painting remains unfinished, and the statue of Gran Cavallo was never completed. He even failed to fulfill his commission for the Adoration of the Magi, leaving the monastery of San Donato before it was done. Furthermore, his lack of understanding of mathematics is evident in his failure to write even a simple equation. Though some attribute knowledge of the golden ratio to him, this has been understood for a thousand years before his time, by the Greek mathematician Phidias.
Most significantly, Leonardo da Vinci was not a scientist in the true sense of the word, as he never conducted experiments to test his theories (that’s right; most, or possibly all of what he did was fancifully inscribed mere theories in his notebook). There is not a single scientific principle that can be attributed to him. Furthermore, much of what he is credited with inventing had already been written or built by others, including diving suits and flying machines which had been extensively documented and tested by ibn al-Firnas, al-Jazari, and most likely the Bani Musa brothers as well. In light of these facts, it is clear that the undeserved merit accorded to Leonardo da Vinci must be re-evaluated.
Back to the legendary and great inventor al-Jazari, as we noted earlier, the man is truly a genius. Continuing with his list of wonderous inventions, al-Jazari also crafted a marvel of engineering, the hand-washing automaton. This device, made of jointed copper and brass, mimics the actions of a human servant in assisting the king during his ritual ablutions. The automaton was designed with great care, incorporating a mechanism of smooth pouring, a right arm holding a brass pitcher with a divided chamber, and a left arm holding a towel, comb, and mirror.
The right arm was fitted with an axle that allowed the liquid to be poured from the reservoir, situated at the right side of the figure, through the spout of the pitcher. The left arm was fitted with a fixed weight, which would raise and lower the arm, extending it toward the king once the reservoir was nearly empty, offering him the means to dry himself and tend to his beard.
This automaton was a masterpiece of practicality and beauty, and its flush mechanism, now utilized in modern flush toilets, has proven its timelessness. The ingenuity and skill demonstrated by al-Jazari in crafting this device showcases the advanced level of technology and engineering achieved by the innovative Muslims during that time.
This bright engineer also dedicated an entire section of his renowned tome, the Book of Knowledge of Ingenious Mechanical Devices, to the marvels of fountain mechanisms. Titled On The Construction in Pools of Fountains Which Change Their Shape, and of Machines for the Perpetual Flute, this section sheds light on the ingenuity and creativity of al-Jazari.
One such fountain mechanism, the peacock fountain, was a sophisticated hand-washing device that exhibited al-Jazari’s mastery of hydraulic engineering. This device was a humanoid automaton in the form of a peacock, which served as a dispenser of water. The dirty water from the basin would fill the hollow base of the peacock, causing a float to rise and trigger a mechanism that made a servant figure appear, offering soap to the user. With each use of water, a second float would trip and a second servant figure would appear, offering a towel to the user. The basin of the peacock fountain was used for the Islamic purification ritual of wudu and was operated by a servant, who would pull a plug on the peacock’s tail to release the water into the basin.
But the list of ingenuities doesn’t end there. Al-Jazari’s musical automata were another marvel of his time. One of these was a musical robot band consisting of a boat with four automated musicians that floated on a lake, entertaining guests at royal feasts. The flow of water was used to alternate from one large tank to another, creating a musical output that changed every hour or half-hour. The musical automata were driven by hydraulic switching, which al-Jazari masterfully utilized to create an output that was both practical and entertaining.
The water clock of the drummers was another musical automaton that al-Jazari brilliantly created. This device consisted of seven wood-jointed male figures, including two trumpeters, two cymbal players, and the rest playing other percussive instruments. The mechanism produced a musical output once every hour, serving as a clock and showcasing al-Jazari’s ability to create multi-functional automata. The motion of the automaton was initiated by a male doll who stood at the edge of the frieze element of the design and moved across until he reached a point where a carved falcon dropped a ball from its beak onto a cymbal. The automaton was driven by water and a series of pistons and cables and was said to produce a “clamorous sound that could be heard from afar” and play several different tunes.
Al-Jazari was truly a master of his craft and his innovations in the field of timekeeping were nothing short of astonishing. He revolutionized the design of water clocks and candle clocks. He created a portable water-powered scribe clock, standing a meter tall and half a meter wide, and monumental astronomical clocks powered by water that displayed intricate models of the celestial bodies.
Al-Jazari also devised the most sophisticated candle clocks known to our era. These clocks utilized a candle with a known rate of burning, with its wick passing through a hole in its cap and wax collected in an indentation that could be removed. The bottom of the candle rested in a dish connected to a counterweight through pulleys, and as the candle burned, the weight pushed it upward at a constant speed. The automata were operated from the dish at the bottom of the candle and displayed the time using a dial, employing for the first time a bayonet fitting that remains in use today.
One of al-Jazari’s greatest masterpieces was the Elephant Clock, which he thoroughly described in his marvelous book. This clock was a marvel of its time, as it was the first clock to feature an automaton that reacted after certain intervals of time. The Elephant Clock features a beautifully crafted elephant that houses a hidden water basin. The timing mechanism is ingeniously simple: a deep bowl floats in the water, with a small hole in its center. As water fills the bowl through the hole, it pulls a string that triggers a series of events in the tower atop the elephant. The string activates a see-saw mechanism, releasing a ball that drops into the mouth of a serpent, causing it to tip forward and pull the bowl out of the water. This sets off a chain reaction of strings, causing a figure in the tower to raise either its left or right hand and the mahout to beat a drum, signaling a half or full hour. The serpent then tips back, starting the cycle anew. Al-Jazari’s creation symbolizes the fusion of cultures, with the elephant representing Indian and African cultures, the dragons symbolizing Chinese culture, the phoenix representing Persian culture, the waterwork representing Greek culture, and the turban symbolizing Islamic culture.
The Elephant Clock is a true marvel of engineering that demonstrates the multicultural spirit of its creator. It was also the first water clock to accurately record the passage of time to match the changing length of days throughout the year.
His largest astronomical clock, the Castle Clock, was another magnificent device standing at 11 feet tall and featuring multiple functions beyond mere timekeeping. It displayed the zodiac and the solar and lunar orbits and had a crescent moon-shaped pointer that traveled across the top of a gateway, causing automatic doors to open and reveal mannequins every hour. The device was also capable of reprogramming the length of day and night to account for their changes throughout the year. Its musical automata, operated by levers attached to a hidden camshaft and powered by a water wheel, added to the grandness and splendor of this device. The Castle Clock also featured a main reservoir with a float, a float chamber and flow regulator, a plate and valve trough, two pulleys, a crescent disc displaying the zodiac, and two falcon automata dropping balls into vases. It is considered by many to be the earliest programmable analog computer.
In addition to all these innovations, al-Jazari also created weight-driven water clocks and a portable water-powered scribe clock. The robotic scribe, with his pen, was symbolic of the hour hand in a modern clock.
Thus, the legacy of al-Jazari lives on through his unmatched achievements in the field of timekeeping, and his ingenuity continues to amaze us to this day. Hence, the Arabs, including al-Jazari, not only preserved and built upon the knowledge of the Greeks, but also added a new dimension to it: the concept of practical application. While Greek robotic science was limited to dramatic illusion, the Arabs applied their expertise to create human-like machines for practical purposes. Al-Jazari’s legacy reminds us of the limitless potential of the human mind.
And now, another brilliant mind, al-Biruni, also deserves his very own section in this illustrious article.
Al-Biruni
The story of the learned scholar, Abu Rayhan Muhammad ibn Ahmad al-Biruni, during the auspicious era of the Islamic Golden Age, is nothing short of marvelous as well. Al-Biruni was a beacon of knowledge, a veritable polymath of matchless erudition and brilliance.
This noble son of the Khwarazmian land was renowned in his own time as the founder of Indology, the “Father of Comparative Religion”, the “Father of modern geodesy”, and indeed, the very first anthropologist to grace the records of history. His mastery of the physical sciences, mathematics, astronomy, and the natural world was matched only by his proficiency as a historian, chronologist, and linguist.
It was said that royalty and the powerful elements of society vied for the privilege of funding al-Biruni’s research and sought him out for specific projects. He was a man of remarkable influence, who took inspiration from the works of other great scholars, such as the Greeks, and applied it to his own philosophical pursuits.
Of the 146 books that he is known to have penned, a remarkable 95 are devoted to the subjects of astronomy, mathematics, and related fields such as mathematical geography. In these works, al-Biruni criticized astrological prognostication with great fervor. He was, in fact, the first to make the distinction between astronomy and astrology, and later wrote a refutation of astrology, contrasting it with the legitimate science of astronomy, which he wholeheartedly supported.
His reasons for such a stance are said to stem from the pseudoscientific methods employed by astrologers, as well as the conflict between the views of astrologers and those of the orthodox theologians of Sunni Islam. He also wrote a comprehensive commentary on Indian astronomy in his work Tahqiq Ma lil-Hind min Maqoola Maqboolah fi al-‘Aql aw Marthoonah (The Book Confirming What Pertains to India, Whether Rational or Despicable), primarily a translation of the 5th-century CE Indian astronomer Aryabhatta’s treatise. It is rumored that he even resolved the matter of the Earth’s rotation in a work on astronomy that is now lost, titled Miftah ‘Ilm al-Falak (Key to Astronomy).
Verily, this great scholar and polymath was a master of many sciences, not least of which was astronomy. In his treatise on the astrolabe, he expertly demonstrated how this wondrous device could be used to determine the passing of time, as well as for the art of surveying. His illustration of an eight-geared mechanism was the precursor to the sophisticated astrolabes and clocks that would later be developed by his fellow Muslims. And it was al-Biruni’s pioneering work on eclipses and equinox times that paved the way for the notable study of the Earth’s past rotation by Dunthorne in 1749 CE.
Al-Biruni was also a trailblazer in the field of mechanics during the glorious Ages of Enlightenment. He was the first to introduce the scientific method to the field, and through his experiments, he determined the density of substances using a unique hydrostatic balance. He even devised a novel method for determining the radius of the Earth by observing the height of a mountain.
In the field of pharmacology, al-Biruni’s keen mind and meticulous methods shone through once again. Using a hydrostatic balance, he was able to determine the density and purity of metals and precious stones, classifying gems based on their physical properties such as specific gravity and hardness, rather than the superficial classification by color commonly practiced at the time. Al-Biruni’s medical-related achievements and contributions are mentioned in a separate article.
It is a tragedy that the brilliant works of al-Biruni were not appreciated in his own time, during the rule of the Ghaznavid dynasty, and in the centuries that followed. It was only in later years that his writings were rediscovered and his pioneering ideas were once again brought to light. Most notably, his book on India became relevant once again due to the colonizing British Empire’s activity in India in the 19th century.
Hence, dear reader, we see that al-Biruni was truly a man of immense learning and accomplishment, a scholar who left a lasting legacy on the advancement of knowledge. But that is not all, for there are many more brilliant minds from the Islamic Golden Ages. For now, let’s mention two more geniuses before we conclude this article.
Abu Hanifa Dinawari
Next, I shall present the brief story of Abū Ḥanīfa Aḥmad ibn Dāwūd Dīnawarī — a man of exceptional learning, a master of numerous arts and sciences, including astronomy, botany, geography, agriculture, metallurgy, mathematics, and history. He was born in the land of Iran and received his education in the schools of al-Baṣrah and al-Kūfah. He was tutored by prominent scholars such as ibn al-Sikkīt and his own father and was noted for his mastery of grammar, philology, geometry, arithmetic, and astronomy. He was also a respected traditionist, transmitting knowledge with accuracy and reliability.
But it is his Kitāb al-Nabat (Book of Plants) that has earned him a place in history as the father of Arabic botany. This magnificent work, written from an Iranian perspective, comprises six volumes and provides a comprehensive examination of the science of botany. Although only the third and fifth volumes have survived to the present day, the sixth volume has been partly reconstructed based on references in later works. In the extant portions of the Book of Plants, the author describes 637 plants, detailing their growth, flowering, and fruiting processes.
The first part of the Book of Plants deals with the relationship between astronomy and botany, including a discussion of the planets and constellations, the sun and moon, and the lunar phases that indicate seasons and rain. Dinawari also delves into meteorological phenomena such as winds, thunder, lightning, snow, and floods, and provides insight into the properties and qualities of different types of soil. He draws upon the works of other early Muslim botanists, such as al-Shaybani, ibn al-Arabi, al-Bahili, and ibn as-Sikkit, which are now lost to us, to deepen our understanding of the subject.
Al-Saghani
Last but not least, the name of Ṣāghānī shall forever be remembered as a scholar of immense prowess and proficiency in the sciences of mathematics, astronomy, and astrolabe-making. Al-Qifṭī, the 13th-century biographer, attests to Saghani’s expertise in geometry and cosmology, and his reputation as the inventor and maker of instruments of observation. Al-Saghani was a respected teacher and had many pupils in the city of Baghdad, where he also served as one of the most outstanding astronomers at the Sharaf al-Dawla Observatory.
Built by the Būyid ruler Sharaf al-Dawla, this observatory was the first of its kind in Islamic history to hold an official status and was tasked with observing the seven planets. Wījan ibn Rustam al-Kūhī, the director and leader of the astronomers, oversaw this grand undertaking and Saghani was one of the signatories of two official documents attesting to the accuracy of the procedures.
Al-Biruni recounts Saghani’s use of a ring with subdivisions into 5 min and a diameter of 6 shibr (roughly 145 cm) for the determination of the obliquity of the ecliptic and the latitude of Baghdad. He also determined the lengths of the seasons using similar methods. While Saghani is often credited with a determination of the obliquity of the ecliptic by observation using a 21-ft. quadrant in 995 CE, it is possible that this feat was accomplished by his contemporary, the great astronomer and mathematician Abū al-Wafāʾ al-Būzjānī, who died in 997 or 998 CE.
Kitāb fī Kayfiyyat Tasṭīḥ al‐Kura ʿalā Saṭḥ al‐Asṭurlāb, written by Saghani and dedicated to ʿAdūd al‐Dawla (977–983 CE), was a groundbreaking book that detailed a new method of projecting a sphere onto the plane of an astrolabe. This method was used to create conic sections, points, straight lines, and circles by taking any point on the line joining the two poles as the “pole of projection”.
Al-Biruni was inspired by Saghani to develop a special type of projection, the orthographic or cylindrical. Saghani’s other work, Risaala fī Isti’aab al‐Wujūh al‐Mumkina fī Sanʿat al‐Asṭurlāb, which only had the first chapter as extant, focused on the circular arcs that represented the hour lines on an astrolabe plate. Saghani demonstrated that the circular arcs for the ends of the first, second, and third seasonal hours cannot all pass through the projections of the north and south points in astrolabe plates for the temperate latitudes. To further advance his research, Saghani also wrote a work in three parts on planetary sizes and distances.
Al-Saghani’s achievements in the field of astrolabe projection and planetary research were nothing short of remarkable, as with his contemporaries, his predecessors, and his successors across all fields of sciences. His innovative techniques made it possible to accurately measure the position of planets and stars in the night sky, allowing our understanding of the universe to be pushed forward.
Ending
I shall now end this article by making a brief, generalized mention of the countless wonders and inventions of olden, golden times.
First, let me speak of the noble game of chess, for it was in our lands that the earliest known manual was penned by the renowned al-Adli al-Rumi, a master of the game. In his tome, Kitab al-Shatranj, he recorded the art of Shatranj (chess) and analyzed opening moves, game problems, the knight’s tour, and other subjects that continue to be studied to this day.
Next, why don’t we make a brief mention of the intriguing field of cryptology, where al-Kindi made a significant contribution? In his treatise, A Manuscript on Deciphering Cryptographic Messages, he presented the world with the first recorded explanation of cryptanalysis and the method of frequency analysis.
And what of the kamal, the celestial navigation device that determines latitude, that originated with our Arab navigators in the late 9th century? This invention allowed for the earliest known latitude sailing and marked the first step toward the use of quantitative methods in navigation.
Furthermore, the al-Shammisiyyah observatory, built in Baghdad in 825 CE, was the oldest true observatory in the sense of a specialized research institute.
Also, sugar mills, driven by watermills and later windmills, first appeared in the Islamic world in what are now Afghanistan, Pakistan, and Iran.
Then we have the story of Ali Abuzarari and his recording of a reservoir pen in his Kitab al-Majalis wal Musayarat — this too, is also worth mentioning. The story goes that one day, the Fatimid Caliph al-Mu’izz li-Din Allah demanded a pen that would not stain his hands or clothes and was provided with a pen that held ink in a reservoir, allowing it to be held upside-down without leaking.
And let us not forget the spinning wheel, invented in the Islamic world by the early 11th century. Evidence points to its existence in the Islamic world by 1030 and the earliest clear illustration of the spinning wheel is from Baghdad, drawn in 1237. By the 11th century, much of the Islamic world was home to industrial steel watermills, from Al-Andalus and North Africa to the Middle East and Central Asia.
Concerning commerce and industry, the earliest “recorded” use of paper for packaging dates back to 1035 CE, when an Iranian traveler visiting markets in Cairo noted that vegetables, spices, and hardware were wrapped in paper for customers after they were sold. Moreover, the incorporation of the crank handle in the cotton gin also first appeared in either the late Delhi Sultanate or the early Mughal Empire.
And last, but not least (for the time being), the bridge mill, a unique type of watermill built as part of the superstructure of a bridge, has its earliest record from Córdoba, Al-Andalus in the 12th century. The most famous one, the Molino de la Albolafia bridge mill, is situated along the banks of the River Guadalquivir near the charming city of Cordoba. This magnificent edifice, highlighting the architectural prowess of our Andalusian ancestors, was built during the reign of the great Emir Abd al-Rahman II (may God be pleased with him) in the year 822 CE. With its ingeniously crafted aqueduct, the Molino de la Albolafia was charged with drawing the waters of the river and conveying them to the royal palace of the Emir.
Though the mighty naura, or water wheel, has since been restored, it was once dismantled at the bequest of the infamous Queen Isabel — may her name be forever cursed, and her soul damned in hellfire for all eternity. Driven by her petty hatred of the noise it produced so close to her castle, she sought to silence the Molino de la Albolafia and thus deny the locals the bounty of its waters.
But despite the evil machinations of Queen Isabel, the legacy of the Molino de la Albolafia lives on. For verily, since the 14th century, it has been depicted on the coat of arms of the city, a symbol of the prosperity and ingenuity of our forebears.
And so, I come before you with the honorable mentions of the many brilliant minds of Islam, whose works and teachings have shaped our society and elevated our knowledge to new heights. Though I have mentioned a mere fraction of these wise scholars, the number of those which I haven’t mentioned is far beyond counting, for there were thousands upon thousands of learned men and women of science who have made contributions to our world. In addition, countless jurists, theologians, philosophers, and sociologists have left their mark on the pages of history, guiding our people along the path of righteousness and enlightenment.
In the articles to come, I shall, God willing, devote a full recounting of the brilliant minds of the Ottoman era, whose works and teachings have had a strong impact on our world.
“The ancients distinguished themselves through their chance discovery of basic principles and the invention of ideas. The modern scholars, on the other hand, distinguish themselves through the invention of a multitude of scientific details, the simplification of difficult (problems), the combination of scattered (information), and the explanation of (material that already exists in) coherent (form). The ancients came to their particular achievements by virtue of their priority in time, and not on account of any natural qualification and intelligence. Yet, how many things escaped them which then became the original inventions of modern scholars, and how much did the former leave for the latter to do.”
Abu Hamid Ahmed ibn Mohammed al-Saghani al-Asturlabi (d. 380 A.H. / 990 CE)
All images were sourced from Google Images.
