Psychological warfare — a domain of warfare where opponents were mentally and morally entrapped without resorting to physical violence. This extraordinary skill, also referred to as demoralization, aimed to erode the essence of morale among both fighters and civilians, offering an unexpected alternative to overpowering adversaries solely through martial prowess. Throughout the rich histories of civilizations past, daring warriors were hellbent on toying with their foes, planting seeds of terror that would haunt them well before the clash of weapons began.

Hence, it fell upon the clever minds of military and political leaders to combat this insidious tactic, compelled to devise countermeasures that appealed to reason or kindled a sea of emotions to quell the encroaching dread. Employing a plethora of strategic devices, armies employed the art of demoralization through cunning techniques, such as the artful execution of hit-and-run assaults or the stringent display of force concentration. On a grander scale, warfare comprised commerce raiding, strategic bombing, and sieges and naval blockades, all coiled around the essence of propaganda.

And now, dear reader, let us dive deeper into nine different terrorizing scare tactics from yesteryears. Within history, some stories would even send shivers cascading down the spine of Uncle Vlad himself.

I — Elephants of War

In the domain of ancient psychological tactics, one is especially striking — the forceful deployment of war elephants. These colossal creatures and their unstoppable force on the battlefield were often deployed not for their practical usefulness, but rather for the immense psychological terror they inflicted upon unsuspecting foes. Even the legendary Roman legions, when faced with these gigantic behemoths in Pyrrhus’ armies at the Battle of Heraclea in 280 BCE for the very first time, trembled with indescribable fear, deeply shaken to their very core.

These magnificent creatures, decorated with elaborate trappings and fearsome adornments, showcased the artistry of intimidation. Originating in the exotic regions of South Asia and parts of Africa, war elephants crossed distant lands, making their mark upon Persia, Southeast and East Asia, and eventually, the Mediterranean. The ardor for these majestic beasts took hold of Seleucus, a general fascinated by their majesty during his service under the great Alexander. Ptolemy, too, succumbed to their appeal, acquiring his own legion of Indian elephants. The Carthaginians, inspired by this power, ventured on their own quest to procure these formidable assets in years to come.

Imagine the sheer devastation that unfolded when a charging elephant collided with a formation of soldiers or horses, its destructive power obliterating all in its path. And let us not overlook the soul-shattering psychological impact, for it was in witnessing these mammoth warriors, their ivory tusks poised like daggers, their frenzied cries piercing the air, that the enemy’s resolve often crumbled like ancient ruins. Within the chaos, fortifications were reduced to rubble, lives impaled upon lethal tusks, and bodies crushed beneath the weight of colossal feet.

These towering beings possessed not only strength but also an intelligence that belied their immense size. A gripping display of dominance unfolded on the stage, with horses — symbols of grace and strength — trembling before their colossal adversaries, their bravery faltering at the mere sight of these magnificent beings. Yet, dear reader, even the most powerful weapons possessed their weaknesses. The terror inflicted by war elephants could be turned upon its masters, as ingenious minds sought unconventional means to combat this behemoth of fear. Flaming pigs, unleashed upon the battlefield, for instance, became harbingers of panic, causing the very elephants they aimed to intimidate to veer in desperate attempts to flee. In this frantic retreat, they trampled their own comrades, wreaking havoc amidst their own ranks. Thus, the utilization of war elephants was a high-stakes gamble, forcing the fate of one’s army to falter between triumph and calamity.

Remarkably, as the pages of history turned, the Romans, their valor tested at great cost against the Egyptians and Carthaginians, adopted these beasts themselves, although primarily for the sake of entertainment and spectacle. These ancient war machines, like the hulking tanks of modern battlefields, were not without their idiosyncrasies. Their handlers, known as mahouts, found themselves locked in a predicament, where the whims of their charges often outweighed their commands, rendering even the mightiest of elephants susceptible to the call of fear.

II — The Magog

As we venture deeper into the thorny passages of history, the psychological warfare of the Middle Ages entices us with more tales of shrewdness and dread. In the era of the Mongol Empire’s ascent, led by the menacing Genghis Khan, Mongol armies instilled terror in the hearts of the unconquered by employing tactics of deception and fear. They adeptly wielded the power of psychological warfare to triumph over their foes.

In the face of numerically superior foes, the Mongols harnessed the power of illusion, donning a cloak of deception to confound their enemies. Ingeniously, they fastened tree branches and leaves to their steeds, propelling their horses forward in a thoroughly orchestrated manner. The result was a mesmerizing spectacle, where dust storms billowed behind the hills, mimicking the presence of a huge army on the march. A phantom force, conjured by the artistry of war, sought to fray the nerves of the enemy, coaxing them toward surrender under the weight of apparent inevitability. Yet, such stratagems were but a fraction of the Mongols’ arsenal of psychological manipulation.

For instance, in the year 1204, on the eve of a fateful battle with the Naiman, Genghis Khan commanded his soldiers to ignite five fires, dispersed at strategic intervals across the land. The flickering flames cast dancing shadows, their glow painting an ominous display. Fear took root in the hearts of the Naimans, their resolve quivering in the face of this infernal display. It was in moments such as these that the Mongols revealed their mastery of the psychological battlefield, exploiting the vulnerabilities of the human psyche to secure victory.

However, let us briefly peer beyond the artifice of deception and plunge into the heart of the Mongols’ modus operandi. Genghis Khan and his brilliant generals, wielding a potent blend of ruthlessness and pragmatism, sought a path of surrender rather than a road paved with bloodshed. The Mongol Empire extended an offer, a lifeline to vanquished foes, granting them the opportunity to embrace servitude and become vassals of the Khanate. Tribute, Mongol residents, and military contributions formed the price of this submission, while the Khan ensured protection, provided obedience prevailed.

Yet, the hand of mercy that extended forth was not devoid of the iron fist that lay concealed within the velvet glove. Resistance, a raging flame flickering in the hearts of the defiant, invited swift retribution. The Mongols thus unleashed a tempest of terror and annihilation, employing a strategy of total war. Populations perished, cities crumbled, and the whispers of suffering reverberated across Asia and Eastern Europe. This calculated brutality, a harrowing reflection of their prowess, was a chilling reminder to any who dared oppose their dominion.

Through such means, these masters of psychological warfare employed a versatile approach to subjugation. Survivors, deliberately spared from the clutches of the massacre, became bearers of an ominous tale, a whispered reminder of the unconquerable might of the Mongols. In certain cases, lone horsemen, emissaries of fear, would ride into surrendered villages, delivering a grim message as they carried out random executions. A chilling test of loyalty, their actions were engraved in the collective consciousness, a warning that a single act of resistance would summon the wrath of the Mongol horde, reducing towns to smoldering ruins and their inhabitants to a fate too horrific to contemplate. Through such terror, obedience was ensured, for the Mongols reigned supreme through the potent currency of fear.

And so, it is within this landscape, dear reader, that a peculiar phenomenon emerged. Peasants, caught in the web of Mongol dominance, found themselves compelled to join their ranks or meekly acquiesce to their demands. The atrocities that rippled across the Mongol campaigns were not mere spectacles of sadism; they were calculated acts of terror, designed to sow seeds of fear and obliterate any notion of resistance. Psychological warfare became their tool of subjugation, whispering tales of horror and devastation to quell the rebellious spirit that dared to challenge the might of the Mongols.

III — The Whistles of Death

Can you fathom a scenario where you find yourself in the middle of battle, surrounded by allies whose bloodcurdling screams fill the air? A shiver crawls up your spine as you can only imagine the horrors that provoked such spine-chilling cries. It is in such moments that the Aztec warriors unleashed an instrument of psychological warfare, the much-dreaded death whistle. When these minuscule yet horrendous whistles were blown, melodies of terror engulfed the battlefield, invading the very minds of their enemies. Even beyond the realm of war, these haunting whistles found their place in the Day of the Dead celebrations, sounding through the air, connecting life and death in a chilling dance.

The sound emitted by the death whistle defies description, for it is a din that surpasses the bounds of human imagination. Imagine for a second, if you will, the bone-chilling screech of a malevolent demon, tearing through the silence like a macabre performance from the depths of a horror film. Now, let your mind wander to the extraordinary sight of an Aztec army on the march, thousands upon thousands of whistles harmonizing in a haunting chorus. As they advanced through the impenetrable jungles, their presence hidden until they were within striking distance, the ethereal sounds of terror crept ever closer, amplifying the dread that gripped the hearts of their unsuspecting foes.

The death whistle, a rare and mysterious artifact, belongs to a unique family of resonators in ancient Mexico, whose true nature remains largely obscured. Its purpose extends beyond that of a mere whistle or musical instrument. Adorned with the visage of a skull, it is a potent symbol of death, while its association with the wind is evidenced by its discovery in the hands of a sacrificed male skeleton, positioned before the temple of Ehecatl, the god of the wind, in Tlatelolco.

While various types of Aztec whistles existed, those with a winding path allowed the warrior to retain a firm grip, leaving their hands free to wield other instruments of war. The death whistle, it is believed, played a role in the sacrificial rituals involving slaves, where the chichtli, an instrument producing a chich sound, was employed during banquets of Aztec merchants, where slaves met their gruesome fate. According to the Florentine Codex, the chich sound signaled the pulling of hair from the center of the slave’s head. Drawing parallels between the spectrograms of the chich sound produced by human voices and the death whistle model, while keeping in mind its connection to Ehecatl, it is fitting to bestow upon this macabre instrument the name Ehecachichtli, in reverence to the idolatrized deity.

Based on modern research, it has been discovered that when two or more similar ancient whistles or their replicas are played together, a blend of extraordinary effects unfolds. Vibrations intermingle, conjuring what can only be described as phantom sounds. When these beats venture into the realm of infrasonic frequencies, too low for human ears to perceive, they possess the power to alter states of consciousness. Should several death whistles unite their voices, elaborate vibrations ensue, as their discordant signals resound across a spectrum of frequencies. The impact on human perception is undeniable, owing to the intensity and range of these primary frequencies. Yet, the formal analysis of their effects on human health remains an unexplored frontier.

In a bold (modern) experiment, a dual model of the death whistle, bearing the faces of both Ehecatl and Mictlantecutli, was employed to test the possibility of the two whistles discovered at Tlatelolco being played in unison. The resulting sounds mirror the fury of a tempest, emanating frequencies that surpass the complexity and intensity of their solitary counterparts.

IV — Head Hunting

In the sphere of Ottoman warfare, a grim practice took hold, instilling dread in the hearts of opponents: the widespread headhunting on battlefields. Indeed, you have understood correctly — it was not simply the gathering of macabre trophies but a deliberate tactic designed to shatter the enemy’s resolve.

Throughout the centuries of the Ottoman Empire, the practice of headhunting became ingrained in the fabric of their warfare. Aside from being a sheer act of brutality, it was somehow a means to sow chaos and confusion on the battlefield while the battle was ongoing. As the clashes ensued, attacks would often come to a halt as Ottoman soldiers, driven by the draw of rewards, scoured the battleground in search of prized heads to present. Indeed, this grim practice, while unsettling to the modern observer, played a significant role in Ottoman military strategy.

In later centuries, the focus shifted from annoying the enemy to the collection of heads itself. Wounded soldiers and prisoners alike became targets, their decapitation serving as a visual spectacle that aimed to strike fear into the hearts of the opposition. Yet, in truth, its impact was more illusionary than substantive, for it caused no harm to the deceased, offered relief to the wounded, and left the unhurt with no avenue of escape save through victory. To the outside world, the grand vizier seemed fixated solely on receiving heads and ears, while the shocking act of chopping off heads played out before his eyes.

Such gruesome scenes unfolded in the most unlikely of places. During Napoleon’s siege of Acre, the Ottoman governor reveled in his palace citadel, surrounded by the mutilated remains of the enemy troops; he sat upon velvet cushions, conspicuous in his position, rewarding those who brought him heads and distributing musket cartridges. Another instance occurred during the Egyptian campaigns of the early 19th century, where the Ottoman admiral and general in Egypt held court within his tent, seated regally on velvet cushions, bestowing monetary rewards upon every Ottoman soldier who presented a Frenchman’s head. These accounts, strewn across historical records, highlight the opportunistic nature of Ottoman headhunting, sparing no wounded or fallen foe, regardless of their allegiance.

The profit motive converged with this ghastly practice, becoming a driving force within Ottoman warfare. Each soldier carried a long, curved dagger or knife, known as a kinschal, its inward curve designed to deliver a lethal blow. This weapon was their tool of choice for the disquieting task of decapitation. The conflicts of the 18th and early 19th centuries between the Ottomans and the major European powers, with the deli cavalry standing as an imposing Ottoman component, abound with reports of mass headhunting.

Truly, there were distinct aspects to Ottoman headhunting. For instance, the mass collection of heads became a defining characteristic of their military operations. With thunderous shouts and sabers raised, Ottoman warriors surged forth from their entrenchments, severing the heads of both the fallen and the unfortunate wounded. As successful engagements unfolded, the sheer quantity of heads became too immense to transport, necessitating the preservation of smaller parts in sacks as proof of their triumphant conquests. The Porte, recognizing these grisly trophies as tokens of accomplishment, rewarded their acquisition, yet they preferred to receive complete heads, garlanding poles in the capital with a dazzling display of dominance.

While it’s true that in the modern world, such a scare tactic would be met with abhorrence and revulsion, centuries ago, however, headhunting, though employed with fervor by the Ottomans, may have not always proved largely effective as a means of instilling terror. Nevertheless, I deemed it essential to include this haunting practice on our journey, for there are undoubtedly many among us who would spare no effort to avoid the threat of losing their lives or suffering injuries, with the grim prospect of having their heads severed for someone’s meager monetary gain.

V — Uncle Vlad

In the realm of terror, where nightmares merge with the darkest corners of history, a figure emerges from the shadows, whose malevolence casts a sinister chill over the earth that mortals walk on. This infamous tale puts fear into men’s hearts: Dracula. Bram Stoker, the visionary author, breathed life into this mythical vampire, forging a narrative that has spawned a multitude of horror tales, fascinating the human imagination. Yet, dear reader, in the depths of reality lies a figure far more grotesque, whose insatiable thirst for blood surpassed the domain of fiction. Behold, Vlad III, Prince of Wallachia, known by a name that thrums with dread: Vlad the Impaler, or Vlad Tepes, as he was known to his subjects.

In the year 1456, at the age of twenty-five, Vlad III emerged victorious in a brutal contest, besting his primary rival, Vladislav II, in a duel that would secure his ascension to leadership in the Transylvania region, situated within present-day Romania. It was here that the cruelty of his reign became known, as he callously dispatched all those who dared to cross his path, from petty criminals to potential political adversaries and their kin. The favored instrument of his sadistic artistry was impalement, a practice he may have learned during his youth spent among the Ottoman Turks.

The act of impalement, dear reader, is a ghastly blend of torture and death. A wooden or metallic pole, sharp or rounded, would penetrate the victim’s body, piercing it from front to back or vertically, crossing the depths of the rectum or vagina. The exit wound could manifest near the victim’s neck, shoulders, or even mouth. This nightmarish spectacle, the pinnacle of torment, would be elevated vertically, displaying the twisted fate of the hapless individual. Hours or even days would pass before death’s mercy arrived, prolonging the suffering to its utmost extent. Vlad’s chosen method of punishment served a dual purpose, instilling both terror and intimidation in the hearts of those who dared to oppose him.

Though history credits Vlad with bringing order and stability to Wallachia, it is an undeniable truth that his rule was drenched in unfathomable brutality. In the year 1459, dozens of Saxon merchants, for instance, once allied with the boyars, met their grisly fate upon impaled stakes in the city of Kronstadt. Astonishingly, Vlad’s notoriety transcended regional boundaries, capturing the attention and even admiration of Europe, as he skillfully vanquished and terrorized the Ottoman Empire’s Muslim inhabitants.

The specter of the Ottoman Turks loomed perpetually within Vlad’s consciousness, their presence a constant threat along his borders. When diplomatic envoys displayed a religious custom by refusing to remove their hats in his presence, Vlad, in a twisted show of reverence, ensured their devotion would forever be remembered. He ordered their hats to be mercilessly nailed to their skulls, a grotesque scene that mocked their beliefs.

Legends swirl as whispers of Vlad III Dracula indulging in the unholy act of dipping his bread into the blood of his victims cross the realms of imagination. Though the veracity of these tales remains unknown, one thing remains indisputable: his insatiable sadism left a lasting mark. The estimated toll of his atrocities reaches a staggering 80,000 lives, each extinguished through various means. Among them, approximately 20,000 souls endured the horrors of impalement, their lifeless forms displayed as a haunting display of terror outside the city walls of Targoviste.

As fate would have it, Sultan Mehmed II of the Ottoman Empire approached Targoviste, intending to invade. Yet, when confronted by the gruesome scene of thousands of impaled Ottoman bodies, he recoiled and returned to Konstantiniyye, his ambitions momentarily halted by Vlad’s grotesque spectacle. The Impaler’s macabre showmanship averted a devastating confrontation, if only for that brief moment. However, dear reader, fate is a beautiful, yet cruel mistress. In 1476, as Vlad marched forth once again, his path intersected with an ambush. The Impaler’s life ended abruptly, his head violently severed from his body — a trophy delivered to Mehmed II in Konstantiniyye, destined to hang as a chilling warning above the city’s gates.

VI — The Dance of Scare

Now, let us venture into the world of New Zealand’s indigenous culture, where ancestral myths and powerful chants blend together, giving form to the mysterious art of the Haka. While the Haka functions as an emblematic representation of Maori culture, its origins extend much further, conjoined with the very core of their rich history, passed down from one generation to another through songs and oral traditions.

Tracing the roots of the Haka reveals a complex challenge, enveloped in the depths of history. However, within Maori lore, several narratives exist, capturing the imagination. One story stands out, recounting the saga of Tama-te-nui-ra, the Maori deity of the sun, and his celestial counterpart, Hine-raumati, who personifies the warmth of summer. Amidst the intense warmth, Hine-raumati would create a mirage made of flickering air currents, representing the concept of vibrating movement. This movement is mirrored in the quivering hands of Haka performers today, celebrating the enduring link between ancient myths and present reality.

One particular manifestation of the Haka, known as the Peruperu, was a powerful war dance — a spiritual call before the tempest of battle. Traditionally performed in the presence of impending conflict, it possesses an unmistakable aura of aggression and purpose. The Maori wielded this ritualistic display not only to instill fear in their adversaries but also as a test of their resolve. As adversaries approached their marae, the sacred meeting grounds, the Haka became a litmus test. Should fear cause retreat, the Maori would interpret it as a sign of weakness, prompting a swift and unyielding response.

The Peruperu charms us with its magnificent array of movements, exhibiting a wide range of intimidating expressions. Elaborate facial contortions reveal the whites of eyes, while tongues defiantly protrude, instilling fear in adversaries and summoning the god of war. Through fierce expressions, primal cries, and resounding actions, they aim to unsettle foes and ignite the foe’s spirit within their own ranks. Foot stomping, resonant slaps, and aggressive postures declare undying resolve. Chanted words converge with cries and grunts, coordinating as instruments of courage and determination. Within the sphere of the Haka, diverse variations exist, each with a distinct purpose; the Ngeri Haka and the Manawa Wera Haka occupy esteemed positions in this ancient art, distinguished by their unique rhythms and carefully crafted choreography, tailored for specific ceremonial occasions.

In this performance, every movement of the body narrates a strong tale of deep-seated emotions. Fingers, elbows, knees, toes — every part functions as a unique narrator, collectively expressing bravery, irritation, happiness, or any emotion that serves the moment’s deep intent. Through this enchanting ritual, the Maori channel the core of their heritage, showcasing a legacy of honor and resilient will.

VII — Beats of War

Now, let us transition to War Music. The narrative of its calculated utilization across various cultures and eras is nothing short of an extraordinary feat of psychological warfare. War drumming, in particular, has found its way into the backbone of numerous civilizations’ military tactics, adapting its purpose and significance over time.

Across various lands, war drums served as conduits of communication between disparate tribes or heralds, announcing the imminent clash of warriors. Their rhythmic cadence provided a steady pulse for the soldiers, marching in unison, and kindled the embers of valor within their hearts during battles of yore. Today, war drums gracefully dance to ceremonial tunes, quivering as synchronizing tributes to the gallant troops. An aural spectacle that demonstrates unity, its sounds rumble within the souls of friend and foe alike.

Under the vast stretch of the sky, the distant rumble of war drums carries a dual message of anticipation and fear, touching the hearts of soldiers on both sides. This deep, echoing sound, traveling from afar, creates a palpable sense of unease, heightening the emotional stakes of the approaching battle. With every pulse and rhythm, the footsteps of the warriors align, drawing them deeper into the spellbinding aura of sound.

Historical records reveal how ancient societies across the globe relied on the enrapturing force of war drums. From the Native American tribes and African warriors to the legions of ancient China, these groups all sought strength and unity in the powerful cadences of the drums.

For millennia, the battlefield has welcomed the beats of drums, and the pages of time harbor the earliest recorded instance during the Battle of Changshao between Qi and Lu in 684 BCE. Across generations, martial practitioners honed their skills in tandem with the relentless beat, attaining unrivaled efficiency and unity. But long before the Battle of Changshao, music’s conjoined destiny with warfare stretches back to the sacred pages of biblical tales.

Joshua’s victory at Jericho was heralded by the sound of triumphant trumpets. Following this tradition, ancient Greeks pursued their conquests, inspired by the stirring sounds of flutes that sang praises of courage and patriotism, offering a musical homage to the deities and esteemed warriors. Myths suggest Athena created the flute from the mournful cries heard at Medusa’s fall. The determined Spartans, too, advanced into battle with the flute’s beguiling sounds, while bugles delivered their battle orders. As they moved forward, the king’s powerful voice merged with this expressive melody, ensuring their formation remained intact and unbreakable, as recorded by Thucydides.

Whilst the Mongols harnessed terror and reputation to sow fear in the hearts of the unconquered, their arsenal also included the repeating thunder of war drums (known as Guangu, aka Dagu, or Jungu). The incessant pounding created an ominous and intimidating ambiance, instilling paralyzing fear within their adversaries.

Similarly, like an invisible arrow piercing the air, the Romans wielded a most peculiar missile weapon against their foes — the “whistling” sling bullets. These stones, discovered amidst the remnants of ancient battles, weighed a mere 30 grams, yet their presence concealed a mysterious hole, a mere 5mm (0.2 inches) in width. This subtle aperture, meticulously crafted, enhanced the destructive potential upon impact, akin to modern hollow-tipped bullets. However, this extraordinary perforation bore a far greater significance — a haunting whistling melody erupted as these stones took flight. The shrill crescendo filled the air, a hint of impending doom. The Romans skillfully manipulated their adversaries’ psyche, for the mere sound of the stones in flight became an instrument of terror, an unwelcome omen of an imminent assault.

VIII — Forced Balding

Let’s dive deeper into the world of Native American warfare, where psychological tactics took center stage, employing theatricality to strike fear into the hearts of their enemies. In the domain of combat, the Native American tribes sought to dismantle the will to fight through methods that boomed with terror. Among these methods, one stood out, casting an enduring shadow upon the records of conflict: scalping.

Stretching back centuries before the arrival of Europeans, scalping had already thrust itself into the fabric of North American martial tradition. It became a somber practice, recounted in early European narratives as more than a grisly token of war. The scalp held both symbolic and tangible significance, symbolizing the ultimate triumph of one warrior over another. It also became a macabre tribute, an act of further humiliation upon the vanquished, carrying gendered undertones in its ritualistic essence.

Even the European settlers, setting off on their imperialistic quests, succumbed to the terrorizing effects of scalping, initially imitating or responding to the Native American practice. With time, scalping evolved into a materialistic incentive, taken as a prize in battle or as a weapon of terror against the populace. In Native American culture, scalps found their place as village ornaments, tokens bestowed upon spouses, and even tradable commodities.

The historical accounts of European explorers uncover the earliest glimpses of scalping in North America. For instance, during his second voyage, Jacques Cartier encountered the inhabitants of Stadacona, who proudly displayed “the skin of five men’s heads,” splayed out like parchments on a wooden board. The de Soto Expedition in 1540 witnessed the scalping of Simon Rodrigues, a member of their entourage, with the natives seizing “el pellejo de corona,” the skin of the crown, as de Soto himself recounted. French explorer Jacques Le Moyne, who visited Florida in 1564, provided a vivid description of how the Timucua tribe scalped their fallen enemies, employing sharpened reeds to cut the skin from the brow in a circular motion to the back of the head, preserving the hair and tying it into a knot at the crown.

The significance of scalping extended far beyond the physical act itself. It bore a profound symbolism, representing the usurpation or nullification of an individual’s personal power and identity by another. In addition to being a tangible showcasing of the martial prowess of the victor, the scalp also erases the societal position and accomplishments of the defeated, thus, completing the physical and spiritual dominance, and in doing so, extinguishing the spiritual essence of the vanquished. It furthermore signified a victory on both the physical and metaphysical planes, an immense obliteration of the enemy’s existence.

In the War of 1812, the chilling specter of scalping cast its dark shadow upon both sides of the conflict. Intended primarily as a tool of intimidation and psychological warfare, the mutilation of scalps was employed by all factions. Numerous accounts describe the same swift circular cut around the top of the scalp with a scalping knife, followed by a forceful yank on the hair to remove the trophy while kneeling on the victim’s back. Irony abounded as one of these accounts was of a U.S. soldier, Captain William McCulloch, who claimed the first scalp of the war, only to face retaliatory scalping by Menominee warriors ten days later.

Curiously, while U.S. troops attempted to halt the scalping of their own kin, they paradoxically encouraged the scalping of Native warriors. A U.S. commander even offered a bounty of $40 for each scalp taken during their invasion into Canada, exploiting the repulsion toward scalping as a propaganda tool to discredit the British and their Native allies.

The British, too, recognized the psychological advantage held within the fear of scalping and torture. They deftly wielded this weapon of terror during the fall of Detroit, Queenston Heights, and Beaver Dams. British officers enticed their troops with bounties for capturing live prisoners, surpassing the demand for scalps. Gradually, the practice of scalping waned among the Grand River warriors, many of whom embraced Christianity and refused to partake in such gruesome acts, ultimately diminishing its prevalence throughout the war.

IX — The Will of Ashur

While the Sumerians, Akkadians, and Babylonians were all considered formidable adversaries within the region of Mesopotamia, their military might pale in comparison to the Assyrians, who elevated the art of war to unprecedented levels. The Neo-Assyrian Empire (c. 1000 to 609 BCE) witnessed the rise of an unrivaled military force. Through the masterful use of psychological warfare, the Assyrians instilled fear in the hearts of their enemies. Employing ruthless tactics such as torture, public displays of captive bodies, and gruesome executions, the Assyrians left an unforgettable mark on history.

The Assyrians implemented a range of intimidation tactics; one notable method involved flaying and staking, a brutal execution technique referenced in the Holy Bible and vividly depicted in surviving works. This horrific procedure primarily targeted provincial governors who defied Assyrian rule. The condemned were methodically skinned alive, not to the point of death, but enough to inflict immense suffering. The extracted skin served a chilling purpose — to adorn the walls of Assyrian strongholds, sending a clear message to rival armies and potential insurgents.

Although we have previously discussed Vlad’s penchant for impaling, it is essential to dedicate a section of this article to the Assyrians, who had their own distinctive practices. One such method, known as staking or a macabre variation of impalement, demonstrated the Assyrians’ expertise in psychological warfare. With precision, executioners gradually inserted a stake through the anus of the condemned, skillfully avoiding immediate fatality by maneuvering around vital organs. On certain occasions, the lower end of the stake was buried in the ground, suspending the victim’s anguished body for public exhibition. This painstaking process aimed to protract suffering, subjecting unfortunate individuals to excruciating torment for extended periods, enduring days of agony.

Among the Assyrian kings, Ashurbanipal, reigning from 668 to 627 BCE, stood out for his inventive cruelty. Displaying a twisted delight in flaying his victims and rivals, Ashurbanipal employed these ghastly acts as strategic military ploys. In his own words, he proclaimed, “I will hack up the flesh and then carry it with me, to show off in other countries.” One can only imagine the immense shock that such a grisly sight would elicit from present-day leaders if one nation’s leader were to arrive bearing a bag of meticulously preserved flesh harvested from fallen enemies. The message conveyed by Ashurbanipal was clear — a powerful blend of terror and dominance.

The Assyrians’ reputation for unfathomable brutality was carefully cultivated through their skillful use of propaganda. The Lachish reliefs, prominently displayed in Assyrian palaces, captured the gruesome fate of Judean captives subjected to public flaying. These graphic depictions served as a powerful form of psychological manipulation, designed to strike fear into the hearts of potential adversaries. As word spread of the Assyrians’ ruthless tactics, many cities chose to surrender without engaging in battle, acknowledging the futility of opposing such a merciless force.

In conclusion, the comprehensive exploration of scare and terror tactics employed by armies throughout history in the various sections of this article has only scratched the surface. Countless more strategies could fill volumes, revealing that since the dawn of humanity, in times of conflict, the pursuit of gaining an upper hand over adversaries has always driven military minds. Among these ingenious methods lies the domain of psychological warfare, a powerful tool utilized to secure victories with relative ease.

All images were sourced from Google Images.