Khayr al-Din

Part (I) — The Barbarossa Brothers

Background

Following the turn of the first millennium, the Turks, once a land-bound people, had begun to conquer the coast of Anatolia, and with it, they set their sights on the great sea that lay beyond.

One such warrior was Tzachas, also known as Chaka Bey, a Seljuk commander who, with a small band of Oghuz warriors, conquered the city of Smyrna and established his own beylik in the Aegean region of Anatolia. With a navy of 40 ships, Tzachas easily captured the nearby island of Lesbos and posed a threat to the Byzantine Empire that had never been seen before.

The Byzantine Empire, perceiving the Turkish threat from the sea, attacked Tzachas’ navy in 1090 CE, but was defeated in the Mediterranean, marking the first Turkish naval victory in history. Though the Seljuks were unable to become a constant sea power due to their own political instability, Byzantine intervention, and the Mongol invasion, it was the Ottomans who would ultimately become the dominant sea power in the Mediterranean, using sea ghazis, which the Europeans refer to as corsairs (also known as sea wolves) to wage proxy wars with European states for centuries.

Among these sea ghazis, none were more successful than Khayr al-Din ibn Ya’coub, aka Barbarossa, who rose to become the ruler of Algiers and eventually the chief admiral of the Ottoman Empire during the reigns of Selim I and Suleiman the Magnificent. He was a man who not only put fear in the hearts of any papist crossing the Mediterranean but also served as a valuable asset to the Ottoman Empire in their wars (and proxy wars) against the European states. And thus, the name Khayr al-Din Barbarossa lives on as one of the greatest seafarers to ever sail the Mediterranean.

A Legend’s Early Beginnings

Upon the shimmering waters of the Aegean Sea, there lay an island known as Lésbos. Though now a part of the grander nation of Greece, in times long past it was held under the dominion of the Ottoman Empire. It was upon this island that a man was born, a man who would come to be known by many names, but who would ultimately be remembered as Barbarossa (lit: Barba = beard; Rossa = red — Redbeard in Italian).

Khizr (or Khidhr in Arabic), also known as Hayreddin, Barbaros Hayreddin Paşa, and, in Arabic, Khayr al-Din, was born in the 1470s (an Arabic source mentions he was born in 871 A.H., or 1466 CE) in a village called Midilli (or Mytilene; in Lesbos) to a Muslim father of Albanian-Turkish origin and a Christian Greek mother, Katerina. He was raised with a strong foundation in Islamic teachings and principles by a devout Muslim family. His brother Ishaaq (pronounced Is-haaq) dedicated himself to the study of the Holy Qur’an and Islamic jurisprudence. Along with his brothers Ishaaq, Oruç, and Ilyas, Khayr al-Din was taught the ways of the sea by their father, a humble potter who sold his goods by ship throughout the Eastern Mediterranean. Khayr al-Din and his three brothers also had two sisters. He was a man of courage and conviction, an inspirational role model for the Muslim community, and a remarkable example of the power of faith and dedication to Islam, demonstrating how Muslim values and principles could bring about great success and honor.

Their father, Yakup (or Ya’coub in Arabic; full Turkish name: Ebu Yusuf Yakub-ut Türkî), was a Sipahi cavalryman among the Ottoman forces who took part in the conquest of Lesbos in 1462, seizing the island from the Genoese Gattilusio dynasty who had held the title of Lord of Lesbos between 1355 and 1462. As a reward for his part in the military action, Yakup was granted the fief of the village of Bonova on the island. With this, he established himself as a potter, using his newfound wealth to purchase a boat which he used to transport his products to be traded. Over time, he became a successful and well-known trader, using his vessel as a means to transport his wares to distant ports.

As they grew, the brothers took to the sea, working as merchants. They were greatly vexed by the naval terrorism of the Knights Hospitaller (aka the Knights of St. John), a centuries-old papist cult based on the island of Rhodes, who disrupted their business. And so, they decided to take up the sword and become corsairs themselves, striking back against the Knights and their ilk. Two of the brothers, Oruç and Ilyas, operated between Anatolia, Syria, and Egypt while Khidhr (Khayr al-Din) operated around the Greek islands in the Aegean Sea; he based his operations mostly in Thessaloniki. Ishaaq, the oldest brother of the four, remained in their hometown of Mytilene and was involved with the financial affairs of the thriving family business.

Khayr al-Din — the Man

As a leader, Khayr al-Din was a man of many talents and many names. He was a clever and bright youth, known for his impressive way of speaking and his bold manner. As a young man, he was noted for his bravery, prudence, and strong will. As he grew to adulthood, he became a successful commander, renowned for his cleverness and his speed of comprehension.

He was a man who took care to educate his subordinates, several of whom became some of the most famous admirals in the history of the Mediterranean, not only the Ottoman Empire. He treated his colleagues kindly and was loved by all. In private, he was cheerful and elegant, a teller of jokes, and a very humble Muslim. With a loving sense of humor, Khayr al-Din once publicly complimented his subordinate Turgut Reis, saying: “Turgut is more advanced than I.” With this, he showed fine traits of humility and nobility.

Physically, Khayr al-Din was tan-skinned, of average height, and had a massive bone and body structure. His hair, beard, eyebrows, and eyelashes were luxuriant, and his eyebrows touched each other. Both Oruç and Khayr al-Din were men of many languages; they were fluent in Greek, Arabic, Spanish, Italian, and French, and he was said to have been an admirer of music.

Khayr al-Din’s Standard

The Arabic calligraphy at the top of Khayr al-Din’s standard translates as:

“Victory from Allah and an eminent conquest; and give good tidings to the believers, O Muhammad.”

The last two words (“O Muhammad”) were conjoined to the end of the text, which is from the 13th verse of Surat al-Saf of the holy Qur’an.

The four crescents held the names of the first four caliphs, from right to left, beginning at the top right — Abu Bakr, Umar, Uthman, and Ali. These rulers would come to be known as the Rashidun Caliphs, and their authority and governance would be marked by a symbol of strength and unity — Dhu’l-Fiqar, a two-bladed sword. To the left of the sword’s hilt rested a small hand, while a six-pointed star, known as the Seal of Solomon, was marked between its two blades. This star was an important symbol to the Muslim world and was adopted by many Islamic rulers, including the Beyliks of Anatolia and the Jandarids in the 14th century.

The star was also used to decorate mosques, adorn coins, and was featured on personal flags of pashas. The Karamanids also adopted this symbol, with the Catalan Atlas of 1375 noting that the flag of the Karamanids consisted of a blue six-edged star. As the symbol of the Seal of Solomon grew in popularity throughout the Middle East, it served to unify and strengthen the bond of those living within its four crescents.

Brother to the Rescue

Oruç, now a very successful seaman, along with his brother Ilyas, set out on a journey to the land of Tripoli in Lebanon. But little did they know, fate had other plans for them. Their expedition was brutally ambushed by the nefarious cult of the Knights of St. John, leaving Ilyas dead and Oruç gravely wounded. Their father’s boat was captured, and Oruç was taken as a prisoner and held captive in the impenetrable Bodrum Castle for several years.

But his brother Khayr al-Din did not abandon him; he sought out Oruç’s location and tried all he could to effect his escape. At first, upon hearing the news of his brother’s capture, Khayr al-Din, along with his “friend” Grego, set out to Bodrum to secure Oruç’s release. He believed that Grego’s connections with the vile Knights would aid in the ransom, but his hopes were cruelly dashed when Grego frauded and betrayed him for chump change, informing the Knights about the brother’s intentions and sharing insight on the brothers’ wealth and background. The Knights of Rhodes, knowing of Oruç’s wealth and seafaring experience, intensified their cruel treatment of him, refusing to release him despite Khayr al-Din’s tireless efforts to secure his brother’s freedom.

Oruç was eventually transferred to a galley ship bound for Antalya where he was forced to work as a slave along with the rest of the hapless rowers. At one point, the galley he was on headed toward Ottoman territory where the foul Knights met with Şehzade (aka prince) Korkut, the son of the Ottoman Sultan Bayezid II. The prince was responsible for ransoming Turkish prisoners from the Knights; however, due to his perceived value and worth, Oruç was not included in the list of prisoners to be released, even as the prince paid for the freedom of one hundred other Turkish slaves, which the Ottoman State usually does once every month.

Oruç’s determination and resourcefulness, nonetheless, proved to be one of his greatest strengths as he eventually managed to break his chains in the middle of a voyage and swim safely toward the Anatolian shorelines, where he ended up in a Turkish village. Within ten days, Oruç made his way to Antalya where he met Ali Reis, a ship captain who traded between Antalya and Alexandria. Oruç joined Ali Reis as a second captain, and it was during this time that he was able to send a message to his brothers informing them of his escape. It was estimated that he spent a total of three (or so) years in captivity from the moment he was taken to Rhodes until his escape.

After some time, Oruç went to the city of Antalya where he was given 18 galleys by Şehzade Korkut, an Ottoman prince, and governor of the city, with the task of battling against the wretched Knights of St. John who were causing great damage to Ottoman shipping and trade.

And so, Oruç took to the sea, a determined corsair, striking fear into the hearts of papist seafarers, and earning fame and wealth for himself and his crew.

Princes of the Mediterranean

While Prince Korkut was the governor of Manisa, he gave Oruç a larger fleet of 24 galleys at the port of İzmir and ordered him to participate in the Ottoman naval expedition to Apulia in Italy, where Oruç attacked several coastal castles and captured two ships.

In the year 1503, Oruç set his sights on greater conquests and seized three more ships, making the island of Djerba his new base of operations in the Western Mediterranean. His brother Khayr al-Din joined him in this endeavor. It should be noted though that Oruç was usually the leader amongst the seafaring brothers; however, Khayr al-Din too had a significant voice in matters of leadership.

In 1504, the brothers sought the aid of Abu Abdallah Muhammad IV al-Mutawakkil, ruler of Tunis, and requested permission to use the strategically located port of La Goulette for their operations. Their request was granted on the condition that they give one-third of their spoils to the sultan.

With his small galliots, Oruç captured two gigantic papal galleys near the island of Elba. Later, near Lipari, the brothers captured a Sicilian warship, the Cavalleria, with 380 Spanish soldiers and 60 Spanish knights from Aragon on board, who were on their way from Spain to Naples.

Plea of the Andalusians

Back in 1492, the kingdom of Granada fell to the armies of Spain, marking the end of Islamic rule in the Iberian Peninsula. This sparked a wave of terror against Muslim and Jewish minorities throughout the region, and many sought refuge in North Africa. The Barbarossa brothers, moved by compassion, aided in the transportation of these refugees to the Maghreb; sources stated that the brothers began their early days of refugee transporting missions sometime around the year 1504 (or perhaps before that date). According to Khayr al-Din’s memoirs:

“The Islamic city of Granada had recently fallen into the hands of the Spanish. The Spanish were committing great atrocities against the Muslims, many of whom worshiped Allah in secret mosques that were built underground (after the conquest). The Spanish destroyed and burned all the mosques they could find, and every time they found a Muslim praying or standing, they would expose him and his children to punishment or burning.”

This rescue mission was a shining example of the Islamic spirit of compassion and brotherhood, as it saved countless helpless Muslims from certain death at the hands of the merciless papists, and provided them with a new home and a new chance at life.

The Struggle Continues

By 1505, there raged a bitter struggle between the Muslims and the Christians for control over the Maghreb region. The land had been won and lost many times over, but with the advent of the so-called Reconquista, the tide began to turn against the Emirs and the Ottoman Sultan. But some valiant braves would not let such things go by while sitting idly into the night; the two brothers, Oruç and Khayr al-Din, continued to take up the sword and carry on the sea jihad against the power-hungry papists; the venerable seafarers struck back against the invaders under the direction of Şehzade Korkut, the son of the now-deceased Ottoman sultan Bayezid II.

In the same year, the brothers raided the coasts of Calabria and elsewhere. Their fame eventually grew, and they were joined by other well-known Muslim corsairs, including Kurtoğlu, known in the West as Curtogoli.

In 1508, they raided the coasts of Liguria, particularly Diano Marina. And in 1509, Ishaaq also left Mytilene and joined his brothers at La Goulette. Oruç’s fame increased as he transported Muslim Mudéjars from Christian Spain to North Africa, earning him the honorific name Baba Oruç (lit. Father Oruç), which eventually, due to the similarity in sound, evolved in Spain, France, and Italy into Barbarossa (meaning “Redbeard” in Italian).

In 1510, the three brothers raided Capo Passero in Sicily and repulsed Spanish attacks on Bougie (aka Bujaya, or Béjaïa), Oran, and Algiers. In August 1511, they raided the areas around Reggio Calabria in southern Italy.

At one time, on his return journey to Lesbos, Oruç stopped at Euboea, captured three galleons and another smaller ship, and upon reaching Mytilene with these captured vessels, he learned that Korkut, who was still seen as a threat to the new Ottoman sultan, Selim I, had fled to Egypt to avoid being killed by his paranoid brother.

When the Ottoman Sultan passed away in 1512, a struggle for the throne ensued between his sons Ahmed and Selim. Selim emerged victorious, but in his quest for power, he did not hesitate to eliminate anyone whom he saw as a threat, including his own brothers Ahmed and Korkut, who was the Barbarossa brothers’ close friend.

Fearing trouble due to his well-known association with the now-exiled Ottoman prince, Oruç sailed to Egypt, where he met Korkut in Cairo and managed to get an audience with the Mamluk Sultan Qansuh al-Ghawri, who gave him another two warships and entrusted him with the task of raiding the coasts of Italy once more, in addition to other Christian-held islands around the Mediterranean. After spending the winter in Cairo, he set sail from Alexandria and operated along the coasts of Liguria and Sicily.

By 1513, Sultan Selim would eliminate both of his brothers and become the undisputed ruler over the whole Ottoman Empire.

As the spring of 1513 approached, Oruç set sail from Mytilene toward Alexandria, seizing seven ships along the way on the coast of Karpathos Island. With permission from the Mamluk Sultan, he set out on a mission to invade nearby islands, making his way to the coasts of Cyprus before heading west to the island of Djerba in southern Tunisia.

But as Selim I solidified his rule and issued a strict ban on seafaring activities on the Anatolian coasts and neighboring areas, naval captain Iskander Pasha was tasked with enforcing the decree by harassing any seafarers, including the Barbarossa brothers, under the guise of them working for the Ottoman rivals, the Mamluk Sultanate.

From Djerba With Love

Upon hearing the news, Khayr al-Din decided to leave Mytilene, loading his ships with wheat and making his way to Tripoli (Lebanon) to trade the wheat for barley. He then traveled to an island opposite Preveza (aka Barouza) where he purchased a ship, before finally reuniting with his brother Oruç on the island of Djerba in Tunisia.

Together, the brothers Oruç and Khayr al-Din, alongside Yahya Reis, set their sights on the city of Tunis, the capital of the Hafsid state. They approached the Hafsid sultan of Tunisia, Abu Abdullah Muhammad al-Mutawakkil, and made a request:

“We want to be granted a place to protect our ships as we engage in sea jihad for the sake of God. We will also sell our goods in the markets of Tunisia so that Muslims can benefit from the trade and the state’s treasury can be enriched. In return, we will be the ones in authority.”

Their request was granted and the brothers continued their sea jihad from their new base in Tunisia. With the Barbarossa brothers relocating to North Africa, they became essential in helping the local emirs in their struggles against the Spanish. Over the next three years, they would rise to prominence among the North African communities, preying on Spanish, Italian, and Portuguese shipping as independent corsairs.

Their daring raids upon the coastal towns and cities of Andalusia in the same year were nothing short of legendary. The capture of a galliot belonging to the powerful Lomellini family of Genoa, proprietors of the fabled Tabarca island, was but an appetizer to the many feats of bravery and cunning that you’re about to read throughout the remainder of this illustrious article.

Subsequently, landing upon the shores of Menorca, the brothers seized a coastal castle before setting their sights upon the prosperous region of Liguria. There, in the shadow of the great city of Genoa, they captured four galleys of the powerful Genoese fleet. The Genoese, not content to suffer such an insult, dispatched a fleet of their own to reclaim their lost ships, but the brothers proved too formidable an opponent, whereas not only did the Barbarossa brothers humiliate them further, but they ended up capturing their flagship as well. In less than a month, the brothers had amassed a fleet of 23 ships, and with these, they sailed back to their base at La Goulette; there, they built three more galliots and a facility for the production of gunpowder.

This year also saw the Barbarossa brothers launch a raid upon the coastal city of Valencia, where they captured four ships before turning their attention to the nearby city of Alicante. It was there, near the port of Málaga, that they captured a large Spanish galley like no other, adding it to their growing fleet.

With La Goulette serving as a vital stronghold in the western Mediterranean, the valiant Islamic seafarers worked tirelessly to fortify and strengthen its position. They quickly came to understand the strategic importance of Tunisia and its port, as it controlled the Gulf of Tunisia and served as a gateway to the rich and powerful European countries in the western basin of the Mediterranean Sea. As the brothers spent the winter of 1513–1514 at La Goulette, they prepared for their upcoming sea raids in the spring.

Their efforts were rewarded as they set sail and successfully captured a pirate ship with 150 prisoners on the island of Sardinia. They also seized a ship loaded with wheat that had been abandoned by the pirates and fled on their boats. The next morning, they captured two more ships, one loaded with honey, olives, and cheese, and the other with iron. These successful raids solidified La Goulette’s importance as a base for Islamic sailors. Furthermore, sources state that the Barbarossa brothers even captured two significant ships belonging to Pope Julius II between the islands of Corsica and Elba, which were much larger compared to their own vessels. This only further highlights the Islamic sailors’ prowess and growing dominance in the Mediterranean Sea.

Al-Jazaaer

For a while now, the lands of Algeria have been in turmoil and despair. The once-powerful Hafsid dynasty, which rules over Tunisia and the eastern parts of Algeria, is hanging on to whatever power they have left; in the wake of their recent reign, injustice, banditry, and poverty are widespread throughout Algeria. The people of these regions were forced to abandon their homes and towns, seeking refuge from the endless cycle of suffering.

But amidst the chaos, the two brothers, Oruç and Khayr al-Din, saw an opportunity to rise and restore order to the land.

The fall of Andalusia was a catalyst for the Barbarossa brothers to rise up in defense of their faith. The loss of Al-Andalus was still felt deeply by the Muslim community throughout the Mediterranean, as they had called Andalusia home for over seven centuries. However, the Barbarossa brothers saw beyond this tragedy and recognized the potential of Algeria as a base for their corsairing. With the ongoing persecution and expulsion of Muslims in Iberia, the brothers saw the opportunity to not only provide a safe haven for their displaced brothers and sisters but also to strengthen their ranks with the influx of new fighters. The brothers were determined to defend the honor of the oppressed by avenging the righteous.

Moreover, the papists had already occupied many cities along the southern coast of the Mediterranean Sea, including Melilla. At the instigation of the papacy, they had set their sights on expanding further toward capturing strategic locations throughout North Africa as a precaution against the return of Muslims to Andalusia.

In the past five years alone, the papists were in control of several cities in Algeria, including al-Mersa al-Kabir, Oran, Arzew, Mostaganem, Cherchell, Algiers, Béjaïa, and Annaba. Their rule extended even to Tripoli (Libya) under the governorship of the nefarious Knights of St. John. The papists were ruthless in their treatment of the local statesmen and the people alike, deeply interfering in the internal affairs of their North African holdings.

With their expansion toward the North African coast, the Spanish quickly established themselves as the dominant force in the western Mediterranean. Their strategy was to constantly keep a watchful eye on the coasts of North Africa, as they feared the slightest resurgence of Muslim power in Andalusia, where a significant Muslim community remained despite the brutal persecution and expulsion by the Catholic church.

The Spanish emperor, with his grand empire spanning from Iberia to Italy, to northern Europe, to the Americas, was the wealthiest and most powerful Christian monarch of the time. However, the only force that stood in opposition to the Spanish and other Crusader forces in the western Mediterranean was the Barbarossa brothers. Despite their limited resources, they bravely bore the burden of facing off against the likes of the Italian states and the evil Knights of Malta. This was because other Muslim powers were either preoccupied with internal conflicts, or cross-border ambitions or engrossed in their own court intrigues. Other Muslim rulers were simply not bothered with ghazw and jihad and fell in deep love with worldly affairs (harems, building more palaces, etc.).

Oruç and Khayr al-Din, however, were determined to put an end to this growing tyranny, this malignant cancer that has been spreading further east over time while the Muslim rulers have fallen asleep and fallen victim to decadence. The Barbarossa brothers knew that, to restore peace and justice to the land, they would have to take this fight to new levels and the first step was to reclaim Algeria for the Muslims. And so, with the help of their brave and loyal followers, they set out to conquer Jijel and eventually all of Algeria, determined to restore the glory of Islam and bring hope to the people of North Africa.

Although the Barbarossa brothers faced their duty with courage and responsibility, when it came to facing the wealth and might of the Spanish Empire, the brothers knew that they were not a match for a country head-on. As a result, the Muslim seafarers turned to the tactic of raiding European coasts and ships, whether they were commercial or military. This led the Europeans to label them as pirates, in an effort to tarnish their reputation in history. However, what the European history books fail to mention is that this very piracy was something that European countries had been doing for centuries on the Islamic coasts long before the Muslim corsairs existed. The Barbarossa brothers themselves were only driven to this method of resistance as a response to the murder of their innocent brother Ilyas and the capture of one of them by the terrorizing Knights of St. John. Their actions were not just piracy, but a form of retaliation against the unjust treatment they faced at the hands of the colonizing Europeans.

In their pursuit of justice, both for themselves and the broader Islamic community, The Barbarossa’s actions form a valid expression of jihad, a struggle against the oppressive forces of expanding papal powers intent on overshadowing the Light of God. Concurrently, contemporary media narratives often misconstrue the essence of “jihad,” aiming to collectively disparage Muslims and deny their legitimate opposition to modern forms of colonialism by labeling it as sheer acts of terror.

Béjaïa

Over the next two years, the brothers would engage the Spanish fleet on several occasions, moving their base of operations to the coastal town of Cherchell, east of Algiers.

The Battle of Bougie brought great fame to the Barbarossa brothers and particularly to Oruç, as they faced off against ten massive Galley ships sent by the Spanish crown with the intent of capturing them alive. But the will of Allah was on the side of the brothers, and with the winds not in favor of the Spanish, they were forced to redirect to the Algerian coast. So, the Spaniards landed at the Castle of Bougie where they kept searching for the Barbarossa brothers but to no avail. The brothers were corsairing around Genoa at the time, and when word reached out to them about a sizeable Spanish invasion force in Bougie, they set out to root this danger out from their lands.

The battle on the coast was nothing short of a fierce and intense struggle as the brothers’ ships were met with relentless fire from the coastal artillery. The Spaniards had brought with them long-range cannons, which they had unloaded from their ships and positioned strategically across the shore. Though the Spanish ships were equipped with heavier and more advanced artillery, the brothers, under the wise leadership of Oruç, employed a brilliant stratagem that made the enemy believe they had retreated. Oruç then ordered a surprise attack on the Spanish ships, resulting in a stunning victory as they captured the lead ship and three others, while the remaining ships panicked and fled.

Despite this success, there was a difference of opinion among the Barbarossa brothers on the matter of attacking the fortress and the capture of the ships. Oruç, with his unswerving determination, wanted to attack the fortress and castle, while Khayr al-Din, with his cautious and wise approach, advised him to return to Tunis and be content with the four ships they had just captured. Oruç, however, did not listen to his brother’s advice and ordered an attack on the heavily guarded fortress of Bougie.

Oruç, the elder brother, was a natural leader of men, a fierce warrior, and a true believer in the cause of Islam, just like his brother Khayr al-Din. Driven by his stubborn conviction that as the elder brother, his plan was the most viable one, he was determined to attack the fortress. But Khayr al-Din, the younger brother, saw things differently. He knew that continuing the battle would put too many great lives at risk. Furthermore, he knew that the ships they had already captured were a great victory on their own and that returning home would be the smart move. And so, the brothers inevitably proceeded to attack the castle.

During the attack, the Muslim sailors faced heavy losses, with sixty of their men martyred and many others injured. Just as they were about to seize the fortress, Oruç was struck by a cannonball in his left arm. Seeing this, the Spanish opened the gates of the fortress and launched an immediate counterattack. Khayr al-Din, upon seeing his brother’s injury, was filled with concern and led a fierce attack with three or four hundred of his men, and they were able to reach the gates of the fortress before the Spaniards rushed outside; the Muslim braves slaughtered three hundred Spanish soldiers and capturing one hundred and fifty others.

In the end, Khayr al-Din’s wisdom and quick thinking proved to be the key to victory. He captured the fortress and saved many lives in the process. This story illustrates the importance of listening to others and the dangers of being overly ambitious (and stubborn).

Despite the loss of life on the Muslim side, the Barbarossa brothers ultimately emerged victorious. This victory struck fear into the hearts of all who dared to oppose them. Oruç, the elder brother, earned a new nickname: Gümüş Kol, aka Silver Arm, in reference to the silver prosthetic device he used in place of his missing limb. But despite his injury, he remained a formidable foe not to be reckoned with either on sea or land.

Even More Glory

As the year progressed, Abu Bakr Al-Hafs and the city of Qusantina (aka Constantine) found themselves under siege by the Spanish occupation. In a desperate plea for aid, the scholars and leaders were sent to the neighboring city of Bujaya (aka Béjaïa or Bougie) to beg for assistance from the unvanquishable Barbarossa brothers.

Oruç and Khayr al-Din heeded the call and summoned their men, tribal leaders, and voluntary fighters to meet near the walls of Bujaya. With a force of three thousand strong, they set out to defend their Muslim brothers and sisters.

Upon arriving at Constantine, the brothers were met with the daunting sight of 15 huge Spanish ships that were sent to invade the city. Despite their inferior numbers, the brothers refused to back down. They devised a clever strategy, pretending to retreat and drawing the Spanish ships into the open sea where their Muslim naval defenses lay in wait.

The Spanish ships fell into the trap and were met with fierce firepower. The Barbarossa brothers seized one ship and sank others, with the remaining ships fleeing in large numbers. This was yet another pivotal moment in the Islamic resistance against Spanish occupation, as the Muslims were able to successfully defend their land and repel the invading forces.

Greek Wintering

The valiant Barbarossa brothers set out to Lesbos to spend the winter among their families and loved ones. Khayr al-Din, in his memoirs, recounts a dream that his brother Oruç had, in which a wise and respected sheikh appeared to him, bringing the news of salvation and promising great conquests, honor, and glory in the west.

The brothers, guided by their faith, used the wealth they earned to help the needy and equip their ships. As winter approached, Khayr al-Din granted permission for his men to spend the season with their loved ones in Anadolu and Rumelia. But as spring drew near, the youthful flotilla of the famous brothers gathered once again on the island, ready to resume their duties as warriors of Islam.

With ten ships at their disposal, the brothers set off from Lesbos and captured fifteen or sixteen vessels along the way, receiving the best of them and sinking the rest. Their spoils included five ships laden with olive oil, one with agarwood, and the rest filled with money and various goods. The total number of captives included over 400 women alongside a greater number of men.

After some time, the mighty Barbarossa fleet arrived at the port of Halq Al-Wadi in Tunis where they sold their booty and presented lavish gifts to the Tunisian ruler. They were warmly welcomed by him in his palace and were presented with decorated horses, and honorary turbans with a feather on them, and even their seafaring warriors were honored.

In 1514, with 12 galliots and 1,000 fighting men under their command, they laid siege to and destroyed two Spanish fortresses near Bougie. When a Spanish fleet, under the command of Miguel de Gurrea, viceroy of Majorca, arrived to reinforce the besieged defenders, the brothers sailed west toward Ceuta and raided the city before returning eastward to capture Mahdiya in Tunisia.

Their raids then continued upon the coasts of Sicily, Sardinia, the Balearic Islands, and the Spanish mainland, capturing three large ships along the way. In the same year, as the spring blossomed into summer, the Barbarossa brothers set sail toward Napoli; it was there that they encountered a grand vessel en route to Spain, manned by hundreds of Christian fighters. Without hesitation, the brothers launched a fierce attack on the ship. Though they suffered heavy casualties, with 150 brave Muslims martyred and 68 injured, they were ultimately victorious in capturing the ship. Among the 525 souls on board, 298 were taken as captives, while the rest, including a prominent Spanish figure, were killed in the intense battle.

Undeterred by their losses, the Barbarossa brothers continued their journey and captured yet another ship. They returned to their base to unload their cargo and heal their wounded before preparing for more daring escapades.

Honors of the Sultan

In the spring of 1515, the Barbarossa brothers set sail from Tunisia on a mission to raid a fortress in Sicily. With a fleet of twelve ships at their command, they captured nearly three hundred prisoners, distributing them among the ships like precious cargo. Among the captured was a docked merchant ship that was loaded with sweet sugar; it was seized by the up-and-coming Deli Muhammad Reis. The following day, they took possession of four more ships, two carrying a large number of succulent figs, one loaded with sturdy masts and flags, and the last one filled with a variety of valuable wares.

After thirty-three days at sea, the brothers returned to Tunisia where they began to establish themselves as powerful and respected leaders. Their fame and strength grew, and they felt it was safe to approach the Ottoman Sultan Selim, who had taken power through a ruthless takeover upon his father’s death a couple of years ago.

The brothers, led by the renowned Muhyi al-Din Piri Reis, set out to develop a relationship with the Sultan, sending gifts and a letter written by Khayr al-Din. Piri Reis and his fleet of six ships set sail from Tunisia, reaching Konstantiniyye on the twenty-first day of their journey. Upon his arrival in Konstantiniyye, Piri Reis was graciously welcomed by the Ottoman Sultan, who in turn offered his support to the legendary brothers, Oruç and Khayr al-Din. The Sultan also honored the delegation with a grand ceremony; it is said that upon reading the letter, Selim raised his hand in prayer and said:

“O Allah, bless my servant Khayr al-Din in this world and the hereafter. O Allah, break their enemies and support them on land and sea.”

The Sultan gifted the brothers two magnificent warships filled with the finest military equipment and ammunition to aid the brothers in their noble quest to liberate more Andalusian Muslims from the oppressive rule of the papist monarchs. As a gesture of appreciation, the Sultan also presented the brothers with two magnificent swords, bedecked with precious jewels, as well as two ornate royal robes and insignia. With the blessings of the Sultan and guidance of the Islamic faith, the Barbarossa brothers continued to thrive in their pursuits; they firmly solidified their position as powerful and respected leaders in the Muslim world.

While Piri Reis was staying in Konstantiniyye, the Barbarossas set sail to the Strait of Gibraltar to do some raiding and rescue as many Andalusian refugees as they could. Meanwhile, upon his return to Tunis, Piri Reis carried an official letter from the Ottoman Sultan to the Emir of Tunis, Abu Abdallah Muhammad al-Mutawakkel, warning him of the consequences of neglecting to offer any needed aid or assistance to the beloved Barbarossa brothers.

“To the Emir of Tunis: when my letter reaches you, this is what you must do, and beware of violating it, and be warned of neglecting any kind of support or aid for our dear subjects: Oruç and Khayr al-Din.”

– Sultan Sultan I

The notables of Tunis gathered at a grand event to witness Piri Reis, dressed in the royal garments sent by the Sultan, emulate the heroic deeds of Khayr al-Din. Khayr al-Din himself later wrote in his memoirs that the Emir of Tunis, upon seeing the Ottoman Sultan’s unfaltering support for the brothers, feared that they were gaining too much favor and may even be planning to take over his throne and turn Tunis into an Ottoman principality. The Emir’s attitude toward the brothers changed as a result, out of fear of losing his power and prestige.

The following year, joined by the famous Kurtoğlu, the brothers besieged the castle of Elba before heading once more toward Liguria where they captured 12 ships and damaged 28 others.

Kings of the Middle Sea

With a burning desire for freedom and a fiery determination to rid their beloved country of oppression, the brothers Oruç and Khayr al-Din were approached by delegations from cities across Algeria. These delegations were filled with passionate pleas for liberation from the tyrannical grip of the Spanish monarchs and their complicit, worldy-loving local emirs. One of these pleas came from none other than the grand city of Algiers, the very heart of the nation.

The delegation implored Oruç to journey to Algiers and lead the charge to expel the Spanish oppressors and reclaim the Fort of Al-Banion, also known as the Fortress of the Rock. Built in 916 A.H. (1510 CE) on a rocky island just 300 meters from the entrance to the port of Algiers, this stronghold had become a constant source of suffering for the people of the city. The Spanish, with their control of the fort, continuously harassed and imposed heavy taxes on the residents, causing immense hardship and distress.

But the words of the Algerian delegates were not in vain; Oruç and Khayr al-Din were moved by the plight of their fellow brethren and, with the support of hundreds of fearless warriors, made preparations to march toward the city of Algiers, ready to vanquish the oppressors and restore freedom to the land.

With a heart filled with courage, Oruç set out to conquer the lands of Algeria. Leading a powerful force of eight hundred fighting men, he loaded sixteen ships with artillery and ammunition and sent them with half of his soldiers. Along the way, he was joined by an additional five thousand tribal fighters from the mainland; this was the beginning of a glorious and victorious campaign.

Some historical sources state that Oruç set out with a smaller force of eight hundred fighters and sent Khayr al-Din with eighteen ships carrying a thousand and five hundred fighters. However, these accounts contradict the memories of Khayr al-Din, who reported that he stayed in Jijel and that Oruç proceeded to capture Algiers on his own.

Oruç began his journey by first conquering the city of Cherchell (Sharshaal) and leaving a garrison to guard it. Some believe that his march to Cherchell was a strategic move to secure a safe haven in times of distress, or that he was waiting for the arrival of Andalusian immigrants to join his cause before he proceeded with additional fighting volunteers for the wider campaign. It is also possible that he was waiting for his brother Khayr al-Din to arrive with the necessary preparations before joining forces and launching a full-scale campaign.

When Oruç finally entered the city of Algiers in the year 921 A.H. (1516 CE), he was welcomed as a hero and savior by the nobles, notables, and the common folk. The warm reception he received exemplified the strength of the Barbarossa brothers’ cause and the power of their Islamic faith. For the time being, freedom and justice were brought to the lands and the people of Algeria, guided by the principles of Islam and the will of Allah. With the liberation of Algiers, the Spanish were forced to flee to Peñón island, where they sought the aid of Charles V to expel the Barbarossa brothers from this strategically located city.

Before Oruç captured Algiers, tensions were already high between the Barbarossa brothers and the Emir of Tunisia, for he was filled with animosity toward the brothers ever since he received that tense letter from the Ottoman Sultan. One source states that Khayr al-Din was approaching Tunis and the Emir spotted Khayr al-Din marching with a sizeable force toward his capital. Desperate to save his own life, the Emir pretended to praise Khayr al-Din and apologized for his failure to provide the promised weapons for the mission. But Khayr al-Din was not fooled by the Emir’s empty words; he toured the city with the hypocritical Emir, pretending to be deceived, before returning to his ships and setting sail for Jijel with his brother Ishaaq.

Upon his return, Khayr al-Din rallied some of his most trusted sea chiefs, including the fearless captains Kurdoglu Musleh el-Din Reis and Dali Muhammad Reis, and sent them on a special mission with seven ships toward the eastern Mediterranean Sea. The sea chiefs spotted an imperial Ottoman fleet somewhere between Cyprus and Egypt, so they followed this fleet into the port of Alexandria where Sultan Selim I was camped after completing his conquest of Egypt in 1517 CE.

The great Sultan Salim honored and celebrated the renowned warrior, Muslih al-Din, bestowing upon him a sizeable army and an ample supply of war equipment for his return to Algeria. The strategic mind of Khayr al-Din was evident as he sent a portion of his fleet to allegedly attack the eastern Mediterranean, but in fact, it is believed that the Barbarossa brothers masterfully orchestrated the sending of these two accomplished captains to Egypt on purpose, in hopes of gaining critical support from the Ottoman Sultan for their ongoing jihad. They were also planning the possibility of ultimately liberating Tunis from the deceitful Emir, who can no longer be trusted. It is also possible that at this stage, one of their major goals was to fully annex Algeria, turning it into a bigger base than the ones in Tunis for launching further attacks on the western Mediterranean.

For all these possible ambitions, they needed a lot more war efforts to aid them in their further endeavors. These possibilities were also why Khayr al-Din made an unexpected, but calculated visit to the untrustworthy Emir of Tunis.

Masters of Algiers

The Ottoman Sultan, seeing an opportunity to expand his own influence in North Africa, didn’t hesitate to offer Oruç and Khayr al-Din financial and military support and whatever else they needed, for they were the key tool toward Ottoman hegemony in that part of the Mediterranean. The brothers were also granted the nominal titles of Governor of Algiers (for Oruç) and chief sea governor of the western Mediterranean (for Khayr al-Din); despite this progress, however, the brothers were not yet full-fledged subjects of the Ottoman Empire. Among the support that was given to them by Sultan Selim I was a good number of fearsome janissaries, galleys, and the finest Ottoman-casted cannon.

Around this time, the Spanish Crown, ever vigilant in its quest for expansion and domination, dispatched its appointed puppet governor, Abu Zayan, to assert full control over the cities of Tlemcen and Oran. However, the shrewd and cunning Oruç foresaw this move beforehand, and so, he launched a surprise attack on Tlemcen, capturing the city and bringing an end to Abu Zayan’s rule there. Sheikh Buhammud, who was from the same dynasty as Abu Zayan, managed to evade capture by fleeing to Oran and beseeching the Spanish for aid.

Oruç now set his sights on expanding his control over the region; he marched his armies toward the cities of Miliana, Medea, and Ténès, conquering them with ease. He became renowned for his innovation in the field of warfare, outfitting his ships with sails to cross the scorching deserts of North Africa.

The Glory of Martyrdom

In the same year of 1517, the brothers Oruç and Ishaaq set their sights once more on the coast of Italy, raiding the towns of Capo Limiti and Capo Rizzuto in Calabria. But their venture had to be cut short as Emperor Charles V, in a show of might, arrived in Oran in early 1518 with a strong army of 10,000 Spanish soldiers, joined by treacherous Bedouin allies. As Oruç journeyed forth, he encountered yet another considerable force of three-thousand-foot soldiers and six thousand cavalrymen led by the infamous Zayani Sultan, also known as Abi Hamo Musa III.

Despite the overwhelming odds against him, Oruç emerged victorious and continued on his path until he reached Oran, where he declared himself ruler of Tlemcen. The Spanish, however, were not willing to let him keep his newfound power and mobilized an even larger army, which was later joined by the disgraced Sultan in an attempt to reclaim his puppet throne. Oruç, not deterred by his lack of numbers, bravely set out to face them.

According to Khayr al-Din’s memoirs, Oruç was presented with an offer by the untrustworthy Spanish: if he left the city of Oran in peace and returned to Algeria, they would spare him and his army and avoid confrontation. Tragically, when Oruç and his men left the city, the treacherous Spanish broke their promise and attacked, leading to a great battle at the Salt River (Spanish: Rio Salado) where Oruç fought valiantly. He was martyred on Jumada al-Awwal 924 A.H. (May 1518 CE) and his head was sent to the Spanish monarch, Charles V. His brother, Ishaaq, is reported to have also met his fate while bravely defending the Castle of Bani Rashid (Castle of the Castles) earlier that year, and he too was martyred at the end of the month of Muharram (January) of the same year; it was said that he held out for as long as 20 days, but ultimately fell in combat to the numerically superior forces of Garcia de Tineo.

Upon the tragic martyrdom of his beloved brother Oruç, the courageous warriors serving under the leadership of the Barbarossa brothers made the unanimous decision to entrust command to Khayr al-Din in the year 924 A.H. (1518 CE). Though deeply saddened by the loss of his brother and many of his bravest soldiers at the hands of the cowardly Spaniards, Khayr al-Din was also faced with a delicate and challenging situation. Not only had some of his fleet’s commanders deserted him, seeing him as unable to fill Oruç’s shoes, but regions in North Africa were also rising up against Ottoman rule in the wake of Oruç’s martyrdom, with the Zawawa tribe, in particular, rebelling under the leadership of Ahmad ibn al-Qadi. To make matters worse, the Tunisian ruler sought to exploit the situation by demanding that Khayr al-Din recognize his authority and submit to him, and there were also concerns that the Spanish would march to Algiers to eliminate Khayr al-Din after they had defeated his brother.

Despite these difficult circumstances, Khayr al-Din refused to be defeated or allow tyranny and injustice to prevail across Muslim lands. Though at this point he could have easily secured a comfortable retirement and a successful career in commerce with the wealth he had accumulated, his sense of self-worth and aspirations for a greater cause would not allow him to submit to defeat or abandon the sacred duty of jihad. He would rather die a thousand deaths than surrender to worldly pleasure, temptation, and comfort.

The historian Ahmed Tawfiq Al-Madani records that the esteemed scholars and leaders of the community in Algiers urgently called upon Khayr al-Din, asking him to take over the whole Algerian emirate after his brother’s death and to continue the holy struggle for the sake of God. But Khayr al-Din, a man of great wisdom and vision, respectfully declined their offer, stating his intention to wage his struggle on the seas and not on land. He announced his consideration to travel to Konstantiniyye and request a fleet from the Ottoman Sultan to launch a massive holy war against the papists and their puppets.

Meanwhile, during the Spanish invasion of Tlemcen, Ténès, and Cherchell, the people rose up against Ottoman rule, led by the deceitful Ahmed Ibn al-Qadi. He rallied the tribes and incited them to restore rule to the Zawawa tribe. In the face of this rebellion, the brilliant Khayr al-Din, a master of strategy, employed the time-honored tactic of divide and conquer. He dispatched his soldiers to Ténès and Cherchell to quell the uprisings, while wisely choosing to wait for more opportune circumstances to deal with the powerful tribes.

The Solution

In the restless political landscape of North Africa, Khayr al-Din found himself faced with a difficult choice. Surrounded by worldly-loving decadent rulers driven by their own desires to sit on the golden throne at the expense of collective Muslim suffering, he searched for a worthy state he could truly call his own. It was then that the light of the Ottoman Empire shone brightest, offering him a chance to build a strong and dependable state in the Maghreb region which he had always dreamed of.

Khayr al-Din’s wise and just policies have always earned him the support of the scholars, who pledged to aid him in his noble mission of expelling the foreign invaders and their local collaborators alike from the country. His leadership inspired many to rally around him, laying aside their pitiful hostility amongst one another and welcoming Ottoman rule should it be enforced by Khayr al-Din. Meanwhile, Abu Hamo al-Zayyani, who had regained his throne in Tlemcen after the tragic death of Oruç, extended his influence far beyond Algeria.

With a heart filled with devotion and loyalty to God’s cause, Khayr al-Din finally made up his mind and decided to turn to the Ottomans to offer his allegiance. He knew that their government was the best option for him to maintain a powerful and just struggle against the oppressive monarchs of Europe and their worthless puppets in the Maghreb. And so, he sent one of his most trusted advisors, Hajji Hussein Agha, to Konstantiniyye to meet with Sultan Selim I. The Sultan received him with open arms, honoring Khayr al-Din and his companions as true sons of the Ottoman Empire.

With this, Khayr al-Din was officially proclaimed Beylerbey of Algeria and the province became a fully integrated part of the Ottoman Empire. The Sultan presented Hajji Hussein Agha with a ceremonial sword, a golden robe, and the new emirate’s banner to give to Khayr al-Din as a symbol of his new position. As the ships of the Algerian fleet set sail, the Sultan ordered them to pass by the Topkapi Palace so that he could witness their procession and formally welcome them as the newest subjects of the mighty Sublime Porte.

Upon his return to Algiers, Hajji Hussein Agha shared the pleasant news with Khayr al-Din. With great respect, Khayr al-Din accepted the gifts bestowed upon him by Sultan Selim I. He immediately summoned his chiefs, followers, and the local people, and with great pride and conviction, officially declared his allegiance to the Ottoman Empire.

Sultan Selim I, recognizing the need for weapons in Algeria, wasted no time in providing aid. Shortly after Hajji Hussein Agha’s departure, the Sultan sent an impressive force of six thousand of some of the finest soldiers in his realm, including two thousand highly trained Janissaries armed with rifles and a good number of cannons. Additionally, the Sultan announced full financial support for any volunteers who wished to join the holy cause of jihad in Algeria, promising them the same privileges as the esteemed Janissaries. Some historians note that the number of additional volunteers sent by the Sultan may have been as many as four thousand men.

Khayr al-Din, ever the political genius, saw this as a golden opportunity and that this was the best course to take for the overall cause. With the crisis in North Africa looming, he knew that the time was ripe to take action and secure his position. He was a man of action, and once he had made a decision, he worked tirelessly to see it through to completion. He believed that the mission of jihad in the name of the Almighty was of the utmost importance and would leave no stone unturned in pursuit of this sacred goal.

Part (II) — Barbarossa

Khayr al-Din, after having pledged allegiance to Selim I, Sultan of the Ottoman Empire, and Khaadim al-Haramayn (The Servant of The Two Holy Cities), inherited his brother’s mantle, his name: Barbarossa, and his lifelong, undying mission of holy struggle against the tyrannic monarchs of Europe.

Barbarossa, ever the cunning strategist, continued to bring mudéjars, Muslims of Spain, to North Africa, thereby assuring himself of a sizable following of grateful and loyal followers, who bore an intense hatred for their former oppressors. At the same time, his heart would find more contentment by showing compassion to all those who seek help when no one can provide it.

Some historians mention that at one point, tribes from neighboring Algerian towns sensed that the Ottomans were planning to fully annex the entirety of Algeria, so they conspired with each other to overthrow any Ottoman presence within Algeria. Despite the conspiracies of neighboring tribes to crush the newly arrived Ottoman soldiers, Khayr al-Din was always one step ahead.

As the day of the grand bazaar in Algiers approached, rumors of a rebellion began to circulate. The tribes that inhabited the neighboring plains secretly entered the city of Algiers with their weapons, intent on burning the Ottoman ships anchored on the coast. They planned to lure the soldiers away from the city by setting fire to Ottoman ships at the harbor and attacking them when their numbers were few and divided.

But Khayr al-Din, with his keen insight and extensive network of spies, was not to be outwitted. He quickly uncovered the plot and arrested the conspirators, meting out harsh punishment in the form of beheadings and mutilation as a reminder to anyone else who dares to stand in the way of the honorable cause. The sight of the conspirators’ corpses hanging from the palace doors was indeed a powerful deterrent to any further rebellion from here on out.

With the rebellion quelled, the people of Algeria became more inclined to accept and even embrace Ottoman rule. Under the wise and just leadership of Khayr al-Din, prosperity and stability slowly made their way into the region.

Hands Off Algeria

“As of now, this wasn’t the time to show weakness, defeat, or being broken, for we did not have a single moment to shed a tear, for we, in (North) Africa, are no more than a handful of Turks whereby we could get crushed by the blink of an eye (if we were to not show our strength)… (and for that matter) I spent the winter preparing endlessly, and I didn’t give myself a single moment of free time (ie., kept occupying myself) so that I avoid thinking about my deceased brother.”
– From the memoirs of Khayr al-Din

As the winter chill set in, Khayr al-Din took great care to ensure that he and his men were fully prepared for the battles to come. He labored tirelessly to repair and upgrade his ships, cannons, and equipment, and to restock his arsenal. He knew that the European powers, led by the arrogant Charles V, would not rest in their attempts to conquer and subjugate the Islamic lands. It is reported that the envoy of Charles V came to him saying:

“Your brother has died and most of his soldiers have been killed, so your wing has been broken. Who do you think you are to stand up to the most powerful Christian king without your brother? What can you do? Take your ships and your men and get out of Algeria immediately, and never set foot in Africa again. This is my last warning to you. I will fill the sea with ships and return to Algeria soon.”

Khayr al-Din refused to be cowed by Charles’ disdainful attitude. He knew that he must respond with strength and determination to show the world that the Muslim people would not be bullied or oppressed. And so, when the time came and Habsburg ships anchored off the coast of Algeria, Khayr al-Din was ready.

The previous defeats at the hands of the legendary pirate Oruç over the years had left the Spaniards seething with anger and a burning desire for revenge. The news of Algeria’s accession to the Ottoman Empire under the leadership of Khayr al-Din only served to fan the flames of their fury. The prospect of the Ottoman threat extending to the western Mediterranean, which was then under complete Spanish control, only heightened their sense of impending doom.

The Holy Roman Emperor Charles V, who held sway over the kingdoms of Naples and Sicily in addition to Spain, had a keen interest in the coastal cities of Algeria, which he considered to be his rightful possessions. The Spaniards began to conspire with Abu Hamo, the ruler of Tlemcen, to eradicate the threat posed by Khayr al-Din and his rapidly growing state. They planned to launch a surprise attack on the sea, with the army of Abu Hamo advancing from land. The Spanish campaign consisted of forty large ships carrying five thousand fighters. They arrived in Algeria on Shaaban 19, 925 A.H. (August 17, 1519 CE). They chose the coast extending to the left of Wadi al-Harash as their point of attack.

Khayr al-Din, fully aware of the Spanish plans, devised a brilliant strategy to counter their attack. He intended to make the battle as similar as possible to the previous year’s encounter which resulted in a crushing defeat for the Spanish army. He planned to lure the enemy into landing at a point of his choosing, where they would disembark with their weapons and equipment, only to be ambushed by Khayr al-Din’s valiant forces. They would then be surrounded on all sides, and gradually worn down by fatigue, before being engaged in a decisive battle at a time of Khayr al-Din’s choosing. And that is exactly what happened.

On a bright and sunny day, the powerful Spanish armada landed on the shores of the Harrach Valley, southeast of the city of Algiers. The might of their soldiers and equipment was impressive, but little did they know that their reckoning awaited.

The Spaniards, eager to establish their dominance over this new terrain, quickly set to work building a castle over Al-Kedia, which they named The Emperor’s Castle; they then equipped it with powerful long-range heavy cannons to intimidate the city of Algiers. However, Khayr al-Din’s strategic mind and expert war tactics proved to be too much for the Spanish, as their cannons were unable to cause significant damage to the city walls.

As the Spaniards were busy constructing their fortress, they waited for the arrival of the Zayani army of Tlemcen, who were expected to play a crucial role in the upcoming battle. But their wait was in vain, as the Zayyan army never appeared, leaving the Spanish forces to their own devices. It took about 6 days for the castle to be built, and still, there were no signs of the Zayyan army.

In the next two days, the Spanish commanders planned the initiative to attack, but feeling the weight of exhaustion and fatigue, they began to withdraw. Little did they know that Khayr al-Din had already prepared a surprise attack. On the third day, Khayr al-Din launched an assault on the Spanish camp from behind with a squad of five hundred fighters, destroying their equipment and burning their boats. The Spanish were caught off guard, and many were forced to surrender without a fight, while others scattered, abandoning their defensive positions.

As the battle came to a close, the sea began to churn and rage, making it impossible for the remaining Spanish ships to approach the shore. More than 4,000 Spaniards drowned, while 3,000 surrendered; the majority of those who were captured were slaughtered like pigs in retaliation for the death of Khayr al-Din’s brother, Ishaq ibn Yaqub, who was intentionally killed by the invading Spanish forces after he surrendered to them.

The Battle of Tlemcen lasted eight days, ending on Shaaban 26, 925 A.H., corresponding to August 24, 1519 CE. In the end, twenty-four ships from the Spanish fleet were washed up on the coast, and the entire Spanish army was left in shambles. The victory once again belonged to Khayr al-Din, who had once again proven to be a formidable enemy to the invading forces. Thus, the Islamic army solidified its power and strength in the Maghreb region.

Another source claims that only a few hundred survivors were left to surrender out of twenty thousand men and that Charles’ commanders returned to him in bitter disappointment with their tails between their legs, having learned a powerful lesson about the courage and military prowess of the mighty Barbarossa.

It is also reported that in the same year, Khayr al-Din set out on a daring raid of Provence, Toulon, and the Îles d’Hyères in southern France. The following year, he set his sights on the Balearic Islands, capturing several Spanish ships returning from the New World off the coast of Cádiz. Shortly thereafter, Khayr al-Din decided that Tunis should be liberated from worldly-loving emirs.

In the spring of 927 A.H. (1520 CE), Khayr al-Din sent a force to Ténès to bring it back to his sphere of influence, so its cowardly ruler asked the Spaniards for help, and so, fifteen Spanish ships were sent by Charles V to support him. Khayr al-Din, however, sent eighteen ships to support the main fleet which he would be leading thereafter. Khayr al-Din then went directly to Ténès and immediately annexed its castle, captured five Spanish ships, and then returned to Algeria triumphant.

Memoirs

In his memoirs, Khair al-Din recounts a momentous event in the history of Bani Zayan. Prince Masoud approached him seeking his support in a struggle against his older brother, Moulay Abdullah. Without hesitation, Khair al-Din rallied a mighty force of three thousand horsemen and a thousand footsoldiers to aid Prince Masoud in his quest for righteousness. Through the intelligence gathered by his spies, Khair al-Din learned that Moulay Abdullah, the ruler of Tlemcen, was spreading lies and inciting rebellion against Prince Masoud. But Prince Masoud would not be deterred; as soon as Moulay Abdullah caught wind of Khayr al-Din’s approaching army, he fled to the Spanish in Oran, seeking their aid. But it was too late for Moulay Abdullah, for Prince Masoud and his army, with the support of Khayr al-Din and the brave Arab volunteers, achieved a glorious victory without shedding a single drop of blood.

Prince Masoud entered Tlemcen and rightfully claimed the throne. In gratitude for their efforts, Prince Masoud bestowed upon Khair al-Din and the Arab volunteers a generous reward of 50,000 gold pieces, the equivalent of the annual tax, as well as a bountiful selection of gifts. Afterward, Khayr al-Din sent a written note to Masoud, telling him:

“And beware of oppressing the Muslims, and do not disobey my commands by one inch, and do not delay in paying the annual tax by one day, and I do not want to hear of you having any kind of relationship with the Spaniards, for they will destroy you when they have power over you. And remember that your two elder brothers in Oran are refugees with the Spanish. And if you don’t want to see either of them sitting on your throne, then take the necessary measures to protect yourself and your throne.”

As Khayr al-Din recounts in his memoirs, upon ascending to the throne, Prince Masoud immediately began to unjustly oppress and exploit his people, even going so far as to tear up Khayr al-Din’s book upon reading it. However, the prince’s cowardly brother, who had taken refuge with the Spaniards in Oran, heard of his actions and reached out to Khayr al-Din for help, promising to submit to his command rather than relying on the Spaniards.

Khayr al-Din, anchored in Mostaganem near Oran, had recently conquered the area from the Spanish without difficulty. At the same time, he was occupied with the resettlement and housing of 2,285 Morisco immigrants who had been brought to Mostaganem on his ships from Andalusia. Khayr al-Din’s generosity knew no bounds as he provided them with land to claim and work on.

When Prince Moulay and a thousand of his men arrived in Tlemcen seeking Khayr al-Din’s assistance, he received them graciously and used his strength and resources to aid them in overthrowing the oppressive rule of Prince Masoud. Verily, Khayr al-Din’s undying commitment to justice and compassion for his fellow Muslims is a shining example of true Islamic leadership.

With great determination and strength, Prince Moulay arrived in Tlemcen and claimed his rightful place as ruler. His brother, Masoud, sought refuge in the castle for a quarter of a month but ultimately met his downfall. The sailors who were sent by Khayr al-Din employed a clever stratagem as they were lacking in cannons. They (pretended) lifted the siege and feigned retreat, catching Masoud off guard and ultimately leading to the fall of the castle.

Masoud, a coward and traitor, fled with only a handful of men, leaving behind the six thousand Bedouin fighters who had stood by his side. Masoud’s fate remains unknown, as he slipped away unnoticed. In this great battle of Tlemcen, the sailors of Khayr al-Din emerged victorious with minimal loss of life. They showed mercy to those who laid down their arms and surrendered, ultimately claiming the lives of only five thousand Bedouins.

On the holy day of Friday, the Ottoman Sultan Selim I’s name was read in the sermon, signaling the city’s submission to Ottoman jurisdiction. Khayr al-Din, a true leader and servant of the Ottoman Empire, garrisoned Tlemcen with a hundred soldiers as per the order of the Sultan. His victory was not only a triumph for the Ottoman Empire but for the Islamic community as a whole, for it sent a message to all puppet rulers that injustice and decadence wouldn’t be tolerated.

More Memoirs

In Khayr al-Din’s memoirs, he also recounts the story of his victorious campaign against the Hafsid Sultan of Tunisia, a leader who dared to defy the supreme rule of the Ottoman Sultan. As Khayr al-Din gained access to the secret communications of the North African rulers (including Ibn al-Qadi) who were bickering and plotting together with the Hafsid ruler, he knew it was time to take action before they posed a serious threat later on. So, Khayr al-Din rallied his men, a strong force of 12,000 warriors, and set out to quell the suspected rebellion.

With strategic precision, Khayr al-Din encamped in one of the fertile plains of Tunisia, ready to strike at a moment’s notice. The Hafsid Sultan, upon seeing Abu Abdullah Muhammad al-Mutawakkil from afar, foolishly believed him to be an ally of the treacherous Ibn al-Qadi, one of the primary instigators of the plot. But Khayr al-Din was not to be underestimated.

With a barrage of missiles, Khayr al-Din’s army surprised and dispersed the Hafsid forces, sending them fleeing like scattered moths in the air. The Tunisian Sultan fell into Khayr al-Din’s captivity, humbled and defeated. But Khayr al-Din, in his wisdom and mercy, took the opportunity to advise and warn the Hafsid Sultan against repeating his treachery, before ordering his release.

As a result of this battle, Khayr al-Din’s army seized an impressive 300 tents, which he ordered to be sent to Algeria as a symbol of victory. He then stayed in the area for several days, cementing his authority and ensuring the continued loyalty of the North African rulers to the Ottoman Sultan.

Even More Memoirs

Khayr al-Din recounts in his memoirs yet another tale of treachery and rebellion. After successfully disciplining the Hafsid Sultan, he was ordered to return to his home in Algeria. However, on the way back, he was ambushed while crossing a narrow pass in between two mountains by the dubious Ahmed Ibn al-Qadi, a rogue and disobedient leader who sought to overthrow the rule of the Ottomans. With 750 of his seafaring men by his side, Khayr al-Din bravely battled against the ambush for over 3 and a half hours before finally breaking through the pass and reaching Algeria.

Despite this initial setback, Khayr al-Din remained vigilant and aware of the growing disobedience movements led by Ibn Al-Qadi. The rogue leader worked tirelessly to rally support and even wrote to all districts, calling for them to rebel against the rule of the Ottomans. Unfortunately, even some of Khayr al-Din’s own sailors, like Qara Hasan, were tempted by the prospect of taking Khayr al-Din’s place and turned against him. But Khayr al-Din’s sharp mind and spy network were always one step ahead, and he quickly discovered and expelled this treacherous sailor.

Not so long after, with an army of forty thousand men at his disposal, Ibn al-Qadi posed a significant threat to Khayr al-Din and Ottoman rule. But Khayr al-Din, ever the clever leader, immediately rallied his own forces, sending ten thousand of his braves to confront the rebels. The ensuing battle was brutal and bloody, with Khayr al-Din losing two thousand men and a thousand more wounded. But in the end, the rebel leaders bent their knees to Ottoman rule, with only seven hundred survivors among them and the rest either dead or captured.

Khayr al-Din thereafter gathered 185 leaders of the rebellion, their hands tied, and sought the legal ruling on them from the scholars of Algeria. They declared that the ruling of death was appropriate for their rebellion, but also acknowledged that many among them were also enemies of the Spanish, leaving room for pardon. However, Khayr al-Din’s sea chiefs advised that it was not the time for kindness and that they must be killed to set an example for others. And so, with a heavy heart but a willful determination to maintain order, Khayr al-Din gave the green light and ordered the execution of the deceitful rebel leaders (all except Ahmad ibn Qadi).

Relocation to Jijel

In his memoirs, Khayr al-Din recounts a time (circa 927 A.H. / 1520 CE) when the people of Algiers were not fully invested in the rule of the Ottoman Empire and were discontent with their presence. He believed that by withdrawing from the city, the Algerians would come to realize the true value of Ottoman support in the face of their true enemy, the papist monarchs. He knew that once he withdrew, the Spanish would inevitably return and the Algerians would beg for his return.

One day, Khayr al-Din made the tough decision to depart, taking his entire crew and their families and wealth with them. The scholars of Algiers pleaded with him to reconsider, but Khayr al-Din insisted on leaving to avoid further upsetting the local populace. Even Ahmad ibn al-Qadi was worried and wrote to Khayr al-Din apologizing for his recent disobedience, but Khayr al-Din did not accept his apology and continued on his journey.

Upon arriving in Jijel, the first city in Algeria that he and his brother Oruç had captured a while back, the people of Jijel held a grand celebration to welcome Khayr al-Din and his crew. They knew that the wealth of any future spoils would now shift to Jijel instead of Algiers.

Khayr al-Din’s actions, though difficult and met with initial resistance, ultimately led to the strengthening of the Ottoman Empire’s hold on Algeria and solidified their rule over the region. His strategic withdrawal and eventual return solidified his reputation as a wise and capable leader, one who truly understood the nuances of the region and its people.

With the winds of God at his back, Khayr al-Din then led his fearless sailors on a journey across the seas to spread fear into the hearts of the papists. Setting sail from the port of Jijel, they first attacked the Christian stronghold of Palermo, the capital of Sicily. The city trembled under the might of Khayr al-Din’s fleet as they pounded its walls and seized nine vessels filled with valuable goods, including wheat, olive oil, and lead ammunition.

But Khayr al-Din was not content to simply plunder and pillage. Upon returning to Jijel, he set about building barracks and houses for his men and sold an enormous amount of wheat at low prices to local bakers to aid the community. He even constructed a shipyard, further solidifying his naval power and capabilities.

With the summer sun high in the sky, Khayr al-Din and his men set out once more to raid the Gulf of Venice. They captured three ships carrying a fortune in gold and took hundreds of Italian prisoners while freeing Muslim prisoners held by the Venetians. Upon returning to Jijel, Khayr al-Din ordered that the cargo of one of the ships be given to the poor, and the rest was sold, with the sailors receiving their fair share.

The following spring, Khayr al-Din set out with fifteen ships, entering the Gulf of Genoa and raiding its coasts for fourteen days. They seized twenty-one ships, which were sent back to Jijel. He then passed through the Strait of Messina and entered the Gulf of Venice, where he gathered with his friend Sinan Reis and his ships. Together, they cruised around before returning to Jijel, capturing nine more Christian vessels along the way.

The Brewery Never Stops

As the dust settled, the great Khayr al-Din turned his attention to internal affairs, determined to crush a bad egg before it hatched. The ruler of Tlemcen, Prince Abdallah Al-Zayani, had taken advantage of Khayr al-Din’s absence to cancel the currency minted in the name of the Ottoman Sultan and decided to mint his own coin instead. Furthermore, the prince had refused to send over overdue taxes to Khayr al-Din. In response, Khayr al-Din sent a stern warning and threatened to kill the prince if he did not comply. But Al-Zayani tore up Khayr al-Din’s letter, leaving him with no choice but to support the prince’s son, Prince Muhammad Al-Zayani, in his quest to depose his father.

With two thousand horsemen at his side, Prince Muhammad took to the mountains, and, when Khayr al-Din marched with his army by land, the two forces met at Mazuna. Khayr al-Din’s army was victorious; he then ordered the immediate execution of Prince Abdallah, while crowning the son as the new ruler. Four hundred of Khayr al-Din’s sailors were sent to accompany him to Tlemcen. Upon his arrival, the prince handed over the overdue taxes to the sailors who in turn sent them to Khayr al-Din.

Entrepreneurial Enterprise

Upon returning to Jijel, Khayr al-Din divided his fleet of 35 ships into small raiding parties and sent them on different raids. One such party, led by Sinan Reis, returned with a bountiful haul of spoils, including 6 trading ships captured from the Europeans. Among the captured ships were ones loaded with valuable items such as gunpowder, ammunition, cannonballs, bronze cannons, oil, building materials, olives, olive oil, cheese, honey, sugar, and money. The first raiding party, led by Sinan, returned with the most spoils, and all 35 ships returned unharmed.

In 1522, Khayr al-Din sent his personal fleet to aid the forces of Kurtoğlu Muslihiddin Reis in the Ottoman Empire’s pursuit of righteousness and justice during the Ottoman conquest of Rhodes. The siege was a glorious victory for the Muslims of the Mediterranean (and the Ottoman Empire), as it resulted in the expulsion of the vile Knights of St. John, who had unjustly occupied the island for far too long.

This siege was the second attempt by the Ottoman Empire to reclaim Rhodes, with the first attempt in 1480 being unsuccessful. But with the guidance of Mustafa Pasha and the bravery of Kurtoğlu Muslihiddin Reis, the Ottoman Empire was able to overcome the formidable defenses of the Knights of Rhodes. The walls of the island were relentlessly bombarded by Turkish artillery and mines for six months until they finally crumbled whereby the Ottomans claimed victory on the first day of the year 1523.

The conquest of Rhodes signaled that there would be fewer terror activities in this part of the Mediterranean. It also secured Ottoman control of the Eastern Mediterranean.

A Sick Dog

Back when Khayr al-Din relocated to Jijel, the slithering Ahmed ibn al-Qadi and his soldiers descended upon Algiers. Historians have recorded that he committed heinous acts against the people, causing them to turn to the Ottomans for protection and support.

Despite not receiving any assistance from the Ottoman Empire during this period, Khayr al-Din worked tirelessly to regain his strength through his own efforts, good management, and wise policies. He assembled a strong force of volunteers from the people of the country and even gained the support of the judge of the Banu Abbasi castle. Delegations from Algiers continually came to him, begging for his return.

After five years from the date of his departure from Algiers, Khayr al-Din returned with an army of 12,000 volunteers and sailors, including 4,000 cavalrymen and 8,000 footsoldiers. Along the way, he was joined by thousands of tribal horsemen from the surrounding countryside. When he approached Medina, some of Ibn al-Qadi’s men confronted him in a fierce battle that resulted in the death of 800 of their men. Despite being outnumbered and uncertain of the loyalty of his men, Ibn al-Qadi put up strong resistance and even managed to raid three of Khayr al-Din’s camps.

But in the end, it was the deceitful Qara Hasan, one of Khayr al-Din’s former sailors whom he had expelled five years ago for conspiring against him, who ultimately sealed Ibn al-Qadi’s fate. With his death and the defeat of Ibn al-Qadi, the doors and paths of Algiers were finally opened to Khayr al-Din, who entered without resistance. This was also a victory for the people of Algeria who had suffered under Ibn al-Qadi’s ruthless oppression.

Back at Algiers

Upon his triumphant return to Algiers, Khayr al-Din swiftly set to work to restore the city to its former glory.

June of 1525 saw Barbarossa raiding the coasts of Sardinia, and in May of the following year, he landed at Crotone in Calabria, sacked the city, sank a Spanish galley and a Spanish fusta in the harbor, then assaulted Castignano in the region of Marche on the Adriatic Sea before landing at Cape Spartivento. During this period, several uprisings occurred back home.

After returning to Algeria, Khayr al-Din began to crush one rebellious force after another, dedicating much of 1526 to this undertaking. He relentlessly pursued and eliminated the traitorous leaders in Ténès and Cherchell, re-establishing his unshakable control over the coast from Jijel to Oran.

In June of 1526, Khayr al-Din landed at Reggio Calabria, destroying the fort at the port of Messina before appearing on the coasts of Tuscany. But, upon seeing the fleet of Andrea Doria and the Knights of St. John off the coast of Piombino, he wisely chose to retreat. In the same year, Khayr al-Din made his presence known once more in the port of Messina, unleashing his fury upon the coastal regions of Campania.

The following year, in 1527, he laid waste to numerous ports and castles along the shores of Italy and Spain, striking fear into the hearts of every papist.

However, in 1528, the city of Constantine in Algeria rose up in rebellion, resulting in the tragic death of one of Khayr al-Din’s loyal subjects. The city was on the brink of falling into the hands of the rebels, forcing Khayr al-Din to take decisive action and deliver a crushing blow to the city and neighboring tribes. The area and its surroundings were left deserted for months, becoming a haunt for wild beasts, criminals, and social outcasts.

Khayr al-Din’s determination and prowess knew no bounds. Ever since he vanquished Ahmed Ibn al-Qadi, he emerged unchallenged, no longer fearing any opposition from his adversaries. However, the looming threat of the Spanish at the Fort of the Rock (aka Peñón or Benyon) remained a constant reminder of the need for vigilant defense of Islamic lands.

The Great Capture

With great determination and purpose, the Ottoman sultan Suleiman the Magnificent declared war on the arrogant Ferdinand of Habsburg in January 1529. To counter the papists, the Sultan had to expand the empire’s reach into the western Mediterranean, and to achieve this goal, he made the wise decision to renew his support for the legendary, and most beloved naval commander, Barbarossa.

Khayr al-Din was gifted with 2,000 janissaries, powerful artillery, and invaluable financial support from the mighty Ottoman Empire. Through his clever use of rhetoric, he was able to sway the allegiance of the supporters of Algiers’ sheikhs and gain a foothold in the city.

In the holy month of Ramadan, at the beginning of May 1529, Khayr al-Din sent a letter to the commander of the castle, Don Martin de Vargas, offering him and his troops safe passage if they surrendered. However, the stubborn commander refused.

Undeterred, Barbarossa laid siege to El Peñón de Argel, the Spanish fortress at the entrance of the harbor. For 22 grueling days, the fortress was bombarded with Ottoman artillery, but the Spanish, led by Governor Don Martin de Vargas, held strong. However, on the 26th or 29th of May 1529, still in the holy month of Ramadan, the Spanish finally surrendered, with only 25 soldiers left and without any assistance from the Spanish mainland.

Khayr al-Din, in his memoirs, recounts how the Spanish, out of cruelty and spite, used to bomb the minarets whenever they heard the call to prayer. But under the wise and just leadership of the Barbarossa brothers, such heinous acts would never go unpunished.

With God’s grace, Khayr al-Din successfully captured the castle from the tyrannic Spaniards. The commander of the artillery who was responsible for the destruction of many minarets and the death of many muezzins was brought before Khayr al-Din. Without hesitation, Khayr al-Din ordered this cruel and merciless Spaniard to be put inside a cannon and shot out to sea, where he met his gruesome demise.

Khayr al-Din then ordered the release of thirty thousand Muslim prisoners who were being held captive; he tasked them to collect the rubble of the castle and build a strategic breakwater connecting the island to the port.

Just ten days after the castle’s fall, reinforcements from nine Spanish ships loaded with supplies, weapons, and equipment arrived — at the request of the now-deceased castle commander. But they found nothing and no one, and as they approached the coast, they thought they had lost their way, assuming they arrived at the wrong location.

But little did they know, Khayr al-Din had been waiting for them. With 15 of his galleys, he suddenly surrounded the Spanish fleet from all sides. Most of the Spaniards aboard were killed, and only 335 were captured. This incident left a deep impression on the Spanish, and they no longer dared to approach the coast of Algeria as brazenly as they used to. The successful capture of this crucial part of Algeria cemented Khayr al-Din’s overall Algerian base and turned it into a major launch base for raids across the western Mediterranean.

Another Plight of the Andalusians

Khayr al-Din’s victory and solidified holding of Algiers was a rallying call to the oppressed and downtrodden Andalusians, who continously requested his aid in crossing the Strait of Gibraltar. In response, Barbarossa devised a daring journey for the transportation of as many Moriscos to Algiers as he could. With a committed focus on the Spanish coast, the legendary Khayr al-Din dispatched one of his most accomplished captains, Aydin Reis, on a mission to patrol the western Mediterranean and liberate as many Andalusian refugees as possible. Aydin set sail with a fleet of ten ships, and as they journeyed through the Strait of Gibraltar, they encountered an imposing armada of five huge Spanish galleys. The ensuing battle was fierce, but under Aydin’s leadership, the Muslim forces emerged victorious, capturing all five galleys and adding them to their fleet.

Aydin then set his sights on the coastal cities and towns, bombarding them with powerful cannon fire and freeing as many Andalusian refugees as his ships could hold. With each vessel filled to capacity, Aydin’s fleet now headed back to Algeria, carrying with them the hope and freedom of countless Muslim families who had been forced to flee their homes.

As the news of the daring rescue mission reached the ears of Charles V, he knew that swift action was required. He summoned his most accomplished admiral, Rodrigo de Portuondo, and charged him with the task of intercepting the Andalusians on their return journey without haste. The emperor even sweetened the deal with the promise of a generous reward of ten thousand ducats should Portuondo succeed.

With an intimidating fleet of eight gigantic galleys, Portuondo set out to sea in pursuit of Aydin Reis and his courageous seafarers. When the Spanish fleet came into sight, Aydin consulted with his trusted sea chief, Salih Reis, on how best to confront the powerful Spanish armada. The corsairs knew that the heavy load of refugees they carried would slow their ships and limit their ability to maneuver. But they were determined to outsmart their enemies and emerge victorious.

Salih and Aydin devised a cunning plan. They would disembark the refugees temporarily, allowing the corsairs to engage the Spanish fleet with the speed and agility of their lightly-laden ships. But the Andalusians, most of whom were women and children, were filled with terror at the thought of falling into the hands of the ruthless Spanish should the plan fail; they refused to disembark, their voices raised in weeping and protest.

The corsair leaders knew that they had to act fast. They urged the refugees to put their trust in God, and with firm resolve, they forced them to disembark on the island of Formentera. The Andalusians, though fearful, knew that the corsairs would stop at nothing to protect them, and so, with the Heavens watching over them, they set out to outsmart the enemy and reclaim their freedom.

Aydin and Salih Reis masterfully outwitted the Spanish captain, Portuondo, by luring him away from the safety of the island of Formentera (and to avoid harm upon any of the refugees). As he drew near, they launched a slick surprise attack on his fleet, engaging in a fierce battle. Their bravery and skill proved victorious, as they captured seven of Portuondo’s massive ships and slaughtered him and his other captains. Aydin and Salih Reis also took 375 Spanish soldiers as prisoners, while thousands of others were killed in the battle. In the aftermath, many Muslim oarsmen who were being held in chains were also freed. The Andalusians, who watched the battle unfold across the seas, fell to their knees in gratitude, praising God for this glorious victory. They were then safely reboarded onto Aydin’s fleet.

The strategic brilliance and valor of Aydin and Salih in this battle earned them a reputation as formidable naval commanders, and it would forever be known as the Battle of the Balearics (October 28, 1529). The Europeans, who were defeated, began to fearfully refer to the Ottomans (in general) as “The Striking Devil” and “The Striking Infidel.” One source claims that Sinan Reis passed away this year, but that is highly unlikely since Sinan Reis accompanied Khayr al-Din on many future expeditions, all the way until the early to mid 1540s. Khayr al-Din also appointed Aydin as chief commander of the fleet and Salih as his deputy. Historians report that this mission helped rescue more than 70,000 Andalusians in seven consecutive voyages.

The Fun Has Just Begun

The year 1530 saw Barbarossa continuing his unrelenting efforts to the cause of jihad, raiding the coasts of Sicily in January, and later, in March and June, the Balearic Islands and the port of Marseilles. He then made his way to the shores of Provence and Liguria, capturing two Genoese ships in July. He did not rest, proceeding to raid the coasts of Sardinia in August and appearing at Piombino in October, capturing a barque from Viareggio and three French galleons before seizing two more ships off the coast of Calabria. The year ended with the capture of the Castle of Cabrera in the Balearic Islands, which he temporarily used as a logistic base for his operations in the region.

The recent conquest of El Peñón de Argel and its subsequent destruction sparked widespread anger and unrest throughout Spain. Coastal communities flocked to the Supreme Council of the State, desperately seeking relief from the incessant attacks of Khayr al-Din and his fearsome warriors. In response to the urgent pleas of the people, the Spanish council made the bold decision to invade Algeria.

Emperor Charles V, whose territories included Lombardy in Italy, Austria, western Hungary, Bohemia, Burgundy, and the lowlands, as well as the German states, fully supported this decision. He knew that it was time to strike a decisive blow against the might of Barbarossa and his Ottoman backers, and he used all of the resources at his disposal, including those from his vast possessions in the Americas.

To lead this campaign, Charles V appointed the renowned Genoese captain Andrea Doria. Under Doria’s command, a fleet of 40 fine warships was gathered in Genoa and spent nearly a year preparing for the journey ahead. In 938 A.H. / July 1531 CE, Andrea set sail with his fleet toward the Algerian coast. The campaign began with a raid on the city of Cherchell, just 90 kilometers west of Algiers. The city, guarded by only a few hundred Muslim sailors, was caught off guard by the sudden appearance of the fleet. The sailors quickly barricaded themselves in the castle, but Doria’s men were able to loot the marina and the city. However, in the chaos, the Muslim sailors seized the opportunity and opened the gates, turning the tide of the battle.

In a swift and decisive move, the Muslims of the city tracked down the invading papists in the winding alleys and paths of the city. Through their valiant efforts, they were able to kill hundreds of enemy soldiers. Taking advantage of the enemy’s disarray and the fact that most of their soldiers were still onboard their ships, while others were busy looting here and there, the Muslims were able to capture many of the remaining Christians.

When Khayr al-Din learned of the attack on the city of Cherchell by the commander Andrea Doria, he immediately assembled a fleet of forty ships and set sail to confront him. Doria, upon hearing of Khayr al-Din’s imminent approach, quickly fled the city with whatever men he had left. But Khayr al-Din was determined to catch him and soon engaged in a fierce battle on the open seas. Despite being heavily outnumbered by Doria’s fleet, Khayr al-Din and his brave warriors glorified the Almighty and dived into battle with their trust in Him.

During the heat of the battle, the Muslim galley slaves who were chained to the Spanish ships rose up and broke their chains, joining the fight. Though more than 300 Muslims were martyred in this fierce battle, Khayr al-Din was ultimately able to defeat Doria’s fleet and emerge victorious. After the battle, Khayr al-Din’s fleet had grown to sixty ships, many of which were anchored in Cherchell and put to repair. He also set free more than 2,200 Muslim prisoners and provided financial assistance to those who wished to return to their homes and reunite with their loved ones. The Christian prisoners, numbering 1,900 and including an admiral and other high-ranking officers, were forced to work as slaves on the ships regardless of their rank.

Khayr al-Din did not linger in Cherchell for long; he quickly set sail for Algeria, proud of his victory and the bravery of his men. He had successfully defended the city and the Muslim people from the invading papist forces and honored the sacrifices made by the many Muslims who had given their lives for the cause.

Glory, and Even More Glory

Khayr al-Din recounts in his memoirs his committment and aspiration to capture the infamous Christian admiral, Andrea Doria. He charged Aydin Reis at the helm of a powerful fleet with the task of tracking down and capturing Doria. Setting sail from Algeria, Aydin Reis and his men bravely set off to Ceuta, which had been under the tyrannical rule of the Portuguese since 1415, and then to Gibraltar in southern Iberia. Crossing the vast Atlantic Ocean, they launched a fierce attack on Christian holdings in the Canaries and other islands in the region. Aydin Reis and his men were continuously victorious, capturing a staggering three thousand captives throughout this voyage and penetrating deep into the heart of Iberia, even approaching the city of Barcelona.

When Aydin’s fleet neared the northeastern coast of Iberia, he raided a large monastery, a symbol of Spanish pride, and captured eighty papist monks, as well as thirty-six rich chests from its treasuries. Khayr al-Din notes in his memoirs that this attack dealt a crushing blow to the pride of Charles V. Throughout this campaign, Aydin Reis and his fleet were able to seize a total of 55 ships, both large and small, which were towed back to Algeria as war spoils.

This expedition was one of Khayr al-Din’s calculated responses to Andrea Doria’s failed raid on Cherchell. As a result, the number of Christian prisoners held in cells in Algeria reached sixteen thousand, in addition to the countless others forced to serve as oarsmen on galleys or to serve in Muslim households.

With great wisdom and foresight, Khayr al-Din carefully selected five hundred of the most skilled and capable rowers from among the captured Christian prisoners and had them divided across Aydin’s fleet. Aydin was then chosen to lead this mission with this fleet of 15 ships and was tasked with presenting these captives to the Ottoman Sultan, Suleiman the Magnificent, as a small gift from his many accomplishments in the Mediterranean.

Through his wisdom, bravery, and honorable leadership, Khayr al-Din continued to lead the Muslim forces to victory time after time against the terrorizing papists of the 16th century.

Upon his arrival in Konstantiniyye, Aydin Reis appeared before the Sultan and personally read Khayr al-Din’s letter, detailing the great successes and achievements of the Muslim forces. The Sultan was deeply impressed by Aydin Reis’ dedication and bravery and bestowed upon Khayr al-Din the title of Beylerbek of the Eyalet of Algeria. He also ordered five large ships to be filled with much-needed supplies and war materials, as well as several skilled cannon engineers, to be sent to aid Khayr al-Din’s jihad efforts.

Thereafter, Aydin Reis set off on his journey back to Algeria. Along the way, he seized seven papist ships and used them to raid many cities, capturing seven hundred Christian prisoners. The paranoid Charles V, preoccupied with his own plans for Algeria, attempted to incite the ruler of Tlemcen to revolt, offering him money and promises of power.

Upon learning of the ruler’s treachery, Khayr al-Din ordered Dali Muhammad Reis to prepare for any incoming Spanish support by sea, while he himself marched to Tlemcen by land. The ruler of Tlemcen, realizing the futility of his rebellion, fled like a coward and begged for forgiveness. Khayr al-Din, in his great mercy, agreed to parley on the condition that the ruler come to him personally and apologize. The ruler came, apologized, and paid the late tax, humbly accepting his rightful place under the rule of the Ottoman Sultan.

As for Dali Muhammad Reis, he spotted, encountered, and bravely faced over 35 incoming Spanish ships with his imposing fleet of 40 ships. In a fierce naval battle, twenty-nine Spanish ships quickly succumbed to Dali’s tactics and surrendered, while the remaining six cowardly fled the scene. The remaining Muslims of Andalusia, fueled by the news of their fellow Muslims’ victorious battles in Algeria, were strengthened in their resolve. More than eighty thousand Andalusian braves descended from the mountains and dealt crushing blows to the oppressive Spanish forces, in an event that is not publicly mentioned in modern sources.

Dali Muhammad Reis immediately began supplying the Morisco rebels on the Spanish coast with the necessary resources to continue their struggle. Under the fearless leadership of Khayr al-Din and his fleet, a total of twenty-one major rescue missions were carried out throughout his lifetime, each one freeing thousands of Andalusian Muslims from the brutal persecution of the hell-bound Spanish Inquisition. These courageous efforts, personally led by Khayr al-Din himself and also by Aydin Reis and Sinan Reis, provided a new start and hope for the rescued Andalusians in North Africa.

Kapudan Pasha in the Making

Nearing the end of 1531, Khayr al-Din set his sights on the island of Favignana, where the flagship of the accursed Maltese Knights, under the command of Francesco Touchebeuf, previously launched an unsuccessful attack on his fleet. Barbarossa sailed eastward and landed in Calabria. On his way back to Algiers, Khayr al-Din sank a Knights’ ship near Messina before assaulting Tripoli, which had been given to the vile Knights by Charles V in the previous year. In October, Khayr al-Din once again raided the coasts of Spain, and also pillaged the Îles d’Hyères.

In the year 1532, during the great expedition of Sultan Suleiman the Magnificent to the lands of Habsburg Austria, the cunning Andrea Doria succeeded in capturing the cities of Coron, Patras, and Lepanto along the coasts of the Morea (Peloponnese). In response, Sultan Suleiman dispatched the forces of Yahya Pashazade Mehmed Bey, who heroically reclaimed these cities for the Ottoman Empire. But this event served as a harsh reminder to the Sultan of the importance of having a powerful commander at sea, which he already did, however, Khayr al-Din cannot be everyone at once; where one region is disciplined, another region brews with trouble.

In light of this realization, Suleiman summoned Khayr al-Din to the imperial city of Konstantiniyye in 1533. Khayr al-Din didn’t take long to depart North Africa; he began his journey by taking a small detour, raiding Sardinia and Bonifacio in Corsica, and the islands of Montecristo, Elba, and Lampedusa. He then captured 18 galleys near Messina and learned from the captured prisoners that Andrea Doria was headed to Preveza. Without hesitation, Barbarossa proceeded to raid the nearby coasts of Calabria and then set his sights on Preveza.

Upon seeing the legendary fleet of Barbarossa, Doria’s forces scattered and fled after a brief skirmish, but not before Barbarossa had captured seven of their galleys. He had arrived at Preveza with a total of 44 galleys, but sent 25 of them back to Algiers to keep the Western Mediterranean safe from any Spanish counterattack, and headed to Konstantiniyye with his remaining 19 ships. Khayr al-Din had left his stepson, Hasan Agha, in charge of Algiers, as per the Ottoman Sultan’s orders.

Upon his arrival at the imperial city of Konstantiniyye, Barbarossa was received with the utmost honor and ceremony at the Topkapi Palace by Sultan Suleiman himself. The Sultan, recognizing his exceptional abilities as a leader and naval commander, appointed him as Kapudan-i Derya, or “Grand Admiral” of the Ottoman Navy, and Beylerbey, or “Chief Governor” of North Africa. The ceremony for his promotion, however, most likely occurred afterward in Aleppo. Additionally, Khayr al-Din was granted the government of the sanjak (aka province) of Rhodes, as well as those of Euboea and Chios in the Aegean Sea. Eighteen of Khayr al-Din’s sea chiefs were also honored and celebrated by the Ottoman Sultan.

With the guidance of the great Suleiman, the Ottoman Empire’s navy reached new heights under the leadership of Khayr al-Din. After being summoned to meet with the esteemed Grand Vizier, Ibrahim Pasha, in Aleppo, Khayr al-Din’s official appointment was now affirmed, and he was inducted into the Sultan’s Court. As captain, Khayr al-Din was granted immense power and resources to improve shipbuilding and the organization of the fleet. He quickly proved himself to be a valuable asset, becoming one of Suleiman’s closest advisors and playing a crucial role in the immediate construction of sixty-one impressive vessels at the Kostantiniyye arsenal.

Suleiman’s naval strategy was a perfect complement to Khayr al-Din’s expertise. The Sultan’s ultimate goal was to build a fleet that was stronger than any other in the Mediterranean, and he trusted Khayr al-Din to make that a reality. Whether through numerical superiority or superior artillery and training, Khayr al-Din worked tirelessly to ensure that the Ottoman fleet was a force to be reckoned with. He also played a key role in upgrading and modernizing the fleet, selling outdated ships, and equipping the new ones with the latest technology. The Islamic empire flourished under their collaboration and Khayr al-Din’s efforts allowed the Ottoman fleet to become one of the most powerful naval forces in the Mediterranean.

With the appointment of Barbarossa as the top seaman of the Ottoman Empire, the Muslims were now sure that they had the most powerful and feared leader at sea, one who inspired them with great hope, one who would strike fear in the hearts of their enemies. His existence surely marked a turning point in the naval power of the empire, and his leadership would prove crucial in securing Ottoman dominance in the Mediterranean for decades to come.

The Diplomat

In the year 1533, the celebrated Khayr al-Din dispatched an embassy to the courts of Francia. It is said that a safe-conduct was obtained by the skilled Ottoman interpreter and agent Janus Bey through negotiations with the French ambassador Antonio Rincon, who at the time was in Venice conducting talks with the Venetian government.

The embassy, led by Sherif Reis, arrived on galleys in the coastal regions between Hyères and Toulon, in July. They were greeted by a delegation of merchants in the port city of Marseilles, and as a diplomatic gesture, the Muslims disembarked wild beasts, including the legendary “Lion of Barbarossa”. Khayr al-Din had also sent a hundred Christian prisoners to give to the French monarch as a gesture of goodwill.

The French Admiral Baron de Saint-Blancard extended a warm welcome to the Ottoman delegation and escorted them on their journey to the region of Auvergne, where they were to meet with the King of Francia, Francis I. Along the way, they were joined by the recently-arrived French ambassador to the Ottoman court, Antonio Rincon, and finally, they all arrived at the city of Puy-en-Velay on the 16th day of July 1533.

On July 19th, the Ottoman embassy was granted an audience with the King of Francia, in the presence of English ambassadors. The Ottoman ambassador delivered a “Declaration of mutual friendship between the Kingdoms of France and Algiers” and a three-year trade agreement was sealed, in the presence of all. The chains of the Christian prisoners were ceremoniously broken before the king, as a symbol of the newfound alliance between the Ottoman Empire and Francia.

King Francis I would later dispatch Antonio Rincon to the court of Khayr al-Din in North Africa and then to the court of Suleiman the Magnificent in the Ottoman capital. News of this alliance reached the ears of Francis I’s bitter rival, Charles V, who expressed great concern at the beginnings of a Franco-Ottoman alliance.

The following year, in 1534, a second Ottoman embassy was sent to Francia, to prepare and coordinate Franco-Ottoman offensives for the year 1535, thus cementing the alliance between the two great powers and striking fear in the hearts of their mutual enemies.

“The Ottoman Empire is the only power capable of guaranteeing the existence of (other) European countries in the face of Charles V.”

– Francois I

Kapudan Pasha

In the year 940 A.H. (1534 CE), the great Khayr al-Din set sail with a powerful fleet of eighty ships, determined to strike against Italy. In April, he began his campaign by seizing the cities of Koroni, Patras, and Lepanto, which were all recently taken by Andrea Doria. He then turned his attention to the western coast of Greece, and by July had reached the Strait of Messina. There, he launched a devastating attack on the city of Reggio Calabria, burning the castle of San Lucedo and razing the city to the ground.

With the Italian mainland trembling before him, Khayr al-Din continued his march of conquest, destroying the city of San Luca and burning eighteen ships in the port of Cetraro. He then sacked the islands of Capri and Procida and set his sights on Naples, bombarding the port, capturing the castle, and taking all of its inhabitants prisoner; over 7,800 captives were taken from Naples alone.

In August, he marched toward Lazio, laying siege to Gaeta before sacking Villa Santa Lucia, Sperlonga, Fondi, Terracina, and Ostia on the River Tiber, causing the church bells in Rome to ring out in alarm, signaling panic and fear as they were expecting Khayr al-Din’s fleet to sweep further up the river. In Sperlonga alone, he took 10,000 captives, and upon arriving in Fondi, his janissaries entered the city through the main gates, ransacking the palace of Giulia Gonzaga.

Through this campaign, Khayr al-Din was able to capture more than 20,000 prisoners and conquer 18 castles. He filled 40 of his ships with loot and prisoners and sent them off to Konstantiniyye while keeping the remaining 40 ships with him to carry on with his conquests.

His next target was the city of Serine, which he attacked and captured. The city of Vallecorsa was not spared from Barbarossa’s wrath either, as he sacked, torched, and destroyed it, slaughtering some of the townspeople and taking others captive. He then sailed south, appearing at Ponza, Sicily, and Sardinia. With his ships heavily burdened with cargo, loot, and prisoners, he sailed to Algeria to unload his ships. However, due to bad weather, he was forced to make port in Bizerte, west of Tunis. Shortly thereafter, the fleet made its way to Tunis, the capital of the Hafsids.

Some say that Khayr al-Din’s ultimate goal was to spread terror among the Spaniards and divert their attention from his true aim of capturing Tunis and annexing it on behalf of the Ottoman Empire. However, some historians speculate by stating that as the commander of the fleet, Khayr al-Din would not have been able to attack Tunisia without prior permission and planning. It is more likely that he gathered military intelligence during his stay in Algeria the year before. Regardless of his intentions, Khayr al-Din’s campaign was a resounding success, striking fear into the hearts of the papist populace.

Part (III) — An Ottoman Hero

Tunis

As the intimidating, but loaded fleet of Barbarossa approached the city of Tunis, the locals greeted him with open arms. His forces suddenly and surprisingly disembarked, then quickly gained control of La Goulette; Khayr al-Din led his army to conquer further inland. With a force of 5,000 cavalrymen, he seized the castle and marched south to the sacred city of Kairouan before returning to the capital, Tunis. On Safar 6, 941 A.H. (August 16, 1534 CE), the Hafsid sultan Abu Abdullah Moulay al-Hasan was forced to flee the city, and those who dared to resist were arrested and imprisoned inside the castle.

The exiled Hafsid sultan, however, consumed by his love for worldly power and his golden throne, sought the help of Charles V to reclaim his rule. Charles V, on the other hand, feared the military might of the legendary Khayr al-Din and did not dare to take revenge without enormous planning beforehand.

Khayr al-Din, knowing the nature of these worldly-loving, power-hungry, and cowardly rulers, prepared his defenses for any retaliation. He was well aware that they would stop at nothing to regain their prized and cherished golden seats. With his unmatched military prowess and strong faith in whatever fate God would decree upon him, Khayr al-Din stood ready to defend this land from any internal or external threat.

As the warm seasons approached, the unstoppable Barbarossa departed from his usual routine and sent his fleet to strike the Spanish coasts with a bold and cunning preemptive attack. He aimed to disperse the enemy’s freedom of subsequent peace and to constantly weaken their defenses. The daring raid on the coasts of Sardinia proved successful as well, as his fleet returned triumphantly with a bountiful haul of twelve thousand ducats of gold, four hundred and seventy-five prisoners, and numerous other spoils.

A Challenging Escapade

In the year 1535, Charles V dispatched one of his most trusted agents to offer Barbarossa the esteemed lordship of North Africa in exchange for his allegiance to the papist kingdoms; the same agent was instructed to assassinate him should he refuse. However, the offer was met with disdain and disrespect, as Barbarossa, with the swiftness of a lion and the strength of a warrior, unsheathed his scimitar and struck down the emissary, beheading him with a single blow.

Thereafter, the Holy Roman Empire, under the leadership of Charles V, mobilized an army of twenty thousand infantry and two thousand cavalries from various regions, in addition to various soldiers from the notorious Knights of Malta, who had infamously made a home in the “viper nest” of Malta ever since their expulsion from the island of Rhodes. As mentioned earlier, these sea bandits, known for their terrorizing of Muslim shipping and attacks on the coasts of North Africa, were the very reason that the Muslim corsairs set sail in the first place.

Charles V, accompanied by an enormous fleet of several hundred ships (some sources claim five hundred) which included both warships and troop carriers, set out from Barcelona on the 1st of Dhu al-Hijjah 941 A.H. (June 2, 1535, CE). He arrived in Tunisia seventeen days later, intending to seize the castle of La Goulette, which controlled the Gulf of Tunisia. Sinan Reis, a brave Muslim defender, held the castle with instructions to hold out for as long as possible until the arrival of the Ottoman fleet summoned by Barbarossa.

For this campaign, Charles V rallied all the resources he could muster; even 74 of his own galleys were rowed by chained Protestants from Antwerp. 300 of the ships that accompanied the expedition were sailing ships, including the mighty carrack Santa Anna and the powerful Portuguese galleon São João Baptista, the mightiest vessel of its time.

The expense of this campaign was great, equaling that of Charles V’s previous campaign against Suleiman the Magnificent on the Danube, or perhaps more. The majority of the funding came from the most expected source — the treasure galleons sailing in from the New World, bearing more than 2 million gold ducats extracted by Francisco Pizarro in exchange for the release of the Inca king Atahualpa (whom he subsequently executed on 29 August 1533).

Despite a request for aid from Charles V, Francis I, the King of France, denied support for the expedition. He cited a three-year truce with Barbarossa following the 1533 Ottoman embassy to France, as well as negotiations with Suleiman the Magnificent for a combined attack on Charles V following the 1534 Ottoman embassy. However, Francis I did agree to Pope Paul III’s request that no conflict between Christians occur during the expedition (concerning the French merchants and military advisors who were residing in North Africa at the time).

As Charles V approached the gates of the castle, he ordered his massive fleet of ships to relentlessly bombard the fortress. His army, armed with heavy artillery, then descended upon the castle and launched devastating attacks, one after the other. Despite the intense bombing, the castle stood strong for nearly a month. Sinan Reis, a brilliant commander, organized several swift counterattacks against the Spanish invaders, in which a staggering six thousand of their soldiers were killed.

While the siege was underway, the legendary Khayr al-Din held back from engaging the Spanish in battle. He wisely chose to bide his time in Tunis, waiting to see what the treacherous Hafsid Sultan would do next. Khayr al-Din knew that if he were to attack the Spanish, the cowardly sultan would use the opportunity to strike him from the south, trapping him between the enemy on two fronts.

Khayr al-Din, nonetheless, had a considerable force of 12,000 soldiers, half of whom were Bedouin volunteers with limited experience in battle. The Hafsid Sultan, meanwhile, had amassed a small army of 1,600 horsemen and 8,000 camels loaded with supplies.

As the fall of La Goulette seemed imminent, discontent and revolution began to brew throughout Tunis. Khayr al-Din’s memoirs reveal that many of the people had been swayed by the Hafsid Sultan’s propaganda, which claimed that he had made a deal with Charles V to save Tunisia from the Ottoman Empire and that there would be no bloodshed once they had occupied the city.

In this hostile environment, Khayr al-Din and his men found themselves outnumbered and outmatched. Despite this, Sinan Reis, a true warrior, managed to lead his remaining Turkish sailors in a daring retreat to Tunis on July 14th, 1535. Khayr al-Din, meanwhile, stayed behind to defend the city for another six days, inflicting heavy losses on the Spanish troops who were now attacking Tunis after having taken over the castle which Sinan Reis retreated from.

With the addition of Sinan Reis and his skilled sailors, Khayr al-Din’s forces swelled to an impressive nine thousand seven hundred warriors, ready to defend the Muslims of Tunis and protect their land from the invading enemy army. But alas, their foes were formidable, with an astonishing thirty thousand soldiers, equipped with hundreds of cannons and supported by the treacherous Hafsid Sultan who marched his army from the south. The odds were against them, and the situation seemed dire.

But Khayr al-Din was a warrior of great courage and determination, as we all know. Despite the loss of forty heavy cannons to the Spanish in La Goulette and the betrayal of the Bedouin volunteers who turned against him, he refused to give up. He knew that the fate of his people, his land, and his faith was at stake. He rallied his remaining seven thousand two hundred soldiers, and with the help of his trusted commanders Aydin Reis and Sinan Reis, they launched a final major attack on the enemy.

The battle was fierce and brutal, and with the scorching heat of summer adding to the difficulty of the fight, Khayr al-Din and his men fought with all their might, felling down one enemy after another, causing many of them to falter. The Muslim braves broke through the enemy lines, and with the utmost courage, they made their way to Annaba, where fourteen warships were waiting for them.

By the time the papist coalition caught up with them, Barbarossa, using his intuition, had already set sail into the Tyrrhenian Sea well before their arrival.

Though thousands of his soldiers were martyred in this heroic battle, Khayr al-Din and his brave sailors, along with Aydin Reis and Sinan Reis, weren’t harmed. Aydin Reis, however, met his end before the fleet set sail, for he died of natural causes and drowned. The mighty Aydin was known as “Cachidiablo” to the Spanish and “Cacciadiavolo” to the Italians (lit. “The Devil in Disguise”), highlighting his cunning brilliance and maneuverability on the high seas.

Not so long after Barbarossa’s tactical retreat, Charles V then unleashed a monstrous genocide upon the Muslim population. Even though the Hafsid king had entered the city before him and had promised the people safety and security for their lives and property, the Christian forces initiated a brutal campaign of slaughter and destruction. More than 30,000 innocent Muslims were murdered, while over 10,000 women and children were taken as slaves. Mosques, schools, and even cemeteries were razed to the ground by the merciless Spanish invaders, and the contents of homes and palaces were plundered and looted. Countless precious manuscripts and books were also burned to ashes.

The renowned Tunisian historian Ahmad ibn Abi Diyaf recorded that nearly one-third of the entire population of Tunisia was either killed or captured, and the city was left in ruins. In the end, the Hafsids were forced to surrender their territories of La Goulette, Bizerte, and Annaba to the Spanish, and they were also forced to pay an annual tribute of twelve thousand golden ducats — so much for bending the knee and kissing the foot. Alas, with the withdrawal of the great Muslim leader Khayr al-Din and the fall of Tunisia into the hands of Charles V, the Hafsids were reduced to submission like dogs, and Muley Hasan, the loyal puppy, was restored to his former position — it seems he got his golden seat after all. However, the southern regions of Tunisia and its eastern coasts remained under the control of the fearsome and respected Barbarossa.

It was also noted that the Spanish discovered cannonballs with the French fleur-de-lis mark at the ruins, confirming the Franco-Ottoman alliance. It is also said that because of how vile the smell of the corpses was, staying there for a minute was so unbearable that Charles V moved his camp to Radès. This defeat for the Ottomans prompted them to cement their alliance with France against the Habsburgs. As a consequence, Jean de La Forêt was sent to Konstantiniyye to become the first permanent ambassador at the Ottoman court and negotiate treaties.

A Hastily Revenge

Not so long after, Khayr al-Din set sail with 32 ships from the port of Annaba in Algiers. His fleet, a tempest upon the waters, swept through the western Mediterranean, striking fear into the hearts of the papist realm. The coastal towns of Spain trembled at the mention of his name as he razed the ports of Majorca and Menorca, capturing and liberating Muslim slaves from the clutches of the Spanish and Genoese.

It was then on the night of the first of September, 1535, that Khayr al-Din’s fleet descended upon the city of Mahón. Disguised as Spanish ships returning from the conquest of Tunisia, they infiltrated the port, catching the Franciscan friars Bartomeu Genestar and Francesc Coll unaware. The city, realizing the true identity of the assailants, shut its gates and prepared for battle.

The defenders sent a relief column of 300 men, led by the governor, to defend the city, but they were no match for the superior numbers and tactics of Khayr al-Din’s men. The column was annihilated, and the governor along with 100 of his knights was killed in battle. The morale of the besieged population was broken, and when the wall was breached, they sought terms of surrender with Khayr al-Din.

On the fourth of September, the city officially surrendered, with the condition that the leaders and their houses would be spared during the plunder. The following night, however, was a night of horror for the inhabitants of Mahón, as Khayr al-Din’s soldiers sacked the city, killing, raping, and enslaving the population — an eye for an eye. The leaders of the city sought refuge in Binimaimut, while Khayr al-Din took the booty, including thousands of slaves, back to Algiers (some sources say that more than 5,500 Christian slaves were taken from Mahon and Palma).

Afterward, Khayr al-Din’s fleet set sail again and went past the Straits of Gibraltar and into the Bay of Cádiz in southwestern Spain. There, they struck a powerful blow to the enemy by destroying the port of Faro in southern Portugal and capturing a grand Portuguese ship with seventy-six cannons and three hundred sailors on board, driven by the strength of hundreds of oarsmen. This ship, just returned from a long voyage from India, was laden with precious goods worth thirty thousand dinars, as well as 36,000 golden dinars in coin.

On his return, Khayr al-Din’s triumphs continued as he successfully defended Tlemcen against yet another Spanish attack. After a brief stay in Algeria, Khayr al-Din appointed his stepson, Hasan Agha, as his deputy, to continue the undying mission of holy struggle.

Al-Ghazi

In the year 1536, Barbarossa was once again summoned to the majestic city of Konstantiniyye. Upon his arrival at the court of the Ottoman Sultan, Khayr al-Din presented a comprehensive account of his recent endeavors and made several state visits around the city. Eager to ensure the continued strength and modernization of the Ottoman Empire’s naval forces, he promptly made his way to the Konstantiniyye ship arsenal to oversee developments in his absence. Determined to expand and fortify the fleet, Khayr al-Din ordered the chief engineer to construct thirty additional galleys, to be ready for launch by a set departure date.

As tensions between the Ottoman Empire and Venice had been simmering for some time, the Ottoman Sultan accused Venice of providing covert assistance to Spain, and so, the stage was set for a decisive conflict. In 1537, the Ottoman Empire declared war on Venice, ending a peace treaty that lasted 35 years.

On the 11th of May, 1537, Khayr al-Din set sail with a mighty fleet of 280 naval vessels, manned by 30,000 oarsmen and tens of thousands of navy soldiers, accompanied by 4,000 Janissaries, 600 heavy cannons, and several thousand cavalrymen. The Adriatic Sea, controlled by Venice from its shores down to the mouth of the Adriatic, was a crucial theater of war in this conflict. The fleet’s objective was to conquer the strategic island of Corfu, west of Greece, which overlooked the Strait of Otranto, and to secure the naval blockade, transport troops, and provide support to the mainland army.

Six days later, on the 17th of May, Sultan Suleiman the Magnificent joined the army via land. On July 11, the Ottoman fleet entered the Gulf of Avalonia, two days ahead of the Sultan’s arrival by land. They then passed through the Strait of Otranto, the gateway to the Adriatic Sea.

Under Khayr al-Din’s command, the Ottoman navy successfully secured the naval blockade and transported troops to support the mainland army’s efforts. The island of Otranto was occupied on July 23, 1537, remaining under Ottoman control for a month. It was a decisive victory and an impressive showcase of the skill and strategic acumen of the Ottoman navy under the leadership of Khayr al-Din.

Despite the Ottoman-French alliance’s efforts to blockade and conquer the island of Corfu, their attempts were met with fierce resistance from the strong defenses of the Venetian-held island. However, Khayr al-Din’s valor and tactical prowess shone through in a subsequent battle at sea. As he crossed the Adriatic, he caught sight of an intimidating Venetian fleet approaching, and without hesitation, launched a bold attack. The Ottomans emerged victorious, drowning 14 Venetian galleys, capturing 16, and sending the rest fleeing in disarray.

The initial plan was for the Ottomans to invade Italy from the south and the Adriatic, while the French attacked from the northwest. However, the French campaign was plagued by poor performance and they were swiftly defeated by the strong Genoan defenders. The Ottoman Sultan, recognizing the futility of continuing with the original plan, decided to return to Konstantiniyye by land.

Khayr al-Din, determined to continue the conflict at sea, left Corfu at the head of 60–70 ships and set his sights on new targets. He invaded the island of Kefalonia, west of Greece, and then attacked the island of Kythira between Crete and Morea, capturing valuable spoils. He then laid siege to several islands in the Gulf of Aegina for three days before successfully taking possession of them.

Barbarossa led his fleet on an uncompromising assault, striking at key locations throughout the Aegean and Ionian seas. Island after island fell under Ottoman rule, as the Venetian defenders were no match for the skill and ferocity of Barbarossa’s braves. Some of the captured islands include the islands of Syros, Aegina, Ios, Paros, Tinos, Karpathos, Kasos, Gyaros, Kythira, Antiparos, the Cyclades islands, Astypalea, Naxos, and many more islands between Crete and Morea.

In the same year, Barbarossa, with his mighty fleet, attacked the island of Corfu again and laid waste to its agricultural lands while enslaving the majority of its population. Despite the old fortress of Corfu being well defended by a 4,000-strong Venetian garrison with 700 guns, Barbarossa’s forces were not deterred, and several attacks were launched against the fortifications. However, his fleet was eventually forced to reluctantly re-embark and once again raid Calabria.

With each victory, the Ottoman Empire grew stronger and the Republic of Venice weaker. The islands of the Aegean and Ionian seas became an Ottoman stronghold, a hub of Islamic power and culture in the heart of the Mediterranean. As indicated in his memoirs, the total number of islands and castles that Khayr al-Din seized in this frenzy was twenty-eight islands and seven castles belonging to Venice. In each island and castle, a garrison was positioned to secure the newly captured holding for the glory of the Ottoman Empire. The remaining two Venetian strongholds in the Morea, Monemvasia, and Nafplio, were also captured afterward.

On 18 June 1538, Francis I signed the Truce of Nice with Charles V, thereby temporarily abandoning the Franco-Ottoman alliance, while ending hostilities with the Habsburgs, leaving Turin in French hands without any significant change in the map of Italy.

The League

These victories prompted Venice to seek the aid of Pope Paul III in organizing a “Holy League” against the Ottoman Empire. The league was comprised of the Papal States, Habsburg Spain, the Republic of Genoa, the Republic of Venice, and the Knights of Malta, to confront the Ottoman fleet that was under the command of Barbarossa.

In the summer of that year, Barbarossa’s fleet numbered 122 galleys and galliots, while the Holy League’s fleet comprised 300 galleys and galleons (55 Venetian galleys, 61 Genoese-Papal, 10 sent by the Maltese Knights, and 50 by the Spanish), with Andrea Doria, the Genoese admiral in the service of Emperor Charles V as the overall commander of this so-called Holy League. In his memoirs, however, Khayr al-Din reported that the papists had more than six hundred ships, of which three hundred and eight were warships and one hundred and twenty large ships carrying sixty thousand troops onboard.

Consequently, the Ottoman forces under the brilliancy of Khayr al-Din were tested as they faced off against a Holy League aiming to subjugate their land. Gathering its vast fleets, the coalition of devout European kingdoms, led by the Papal forces of Admiral Marco Grimani, Patriarch of Aquileia, and Venice’s Vincenzo Capello, sought to overwhelm the Turkish forces near the island of Corfu. But upon the arrival of the Spanish-Genoese fleet, commanded by Andrea Doria, on the 22nd of September 1538, Sultan Suleiman quickly made his way from the Aegean Sea to the Gulf of Arta and the coastal fortress of Preveza.

Aided by the cunning of his trusted lieutenant Sinan Reis, the Sultan proposed the idea of landing forces at Actium, near Preveza, to support his fleet with artillery fire from afar. But the papist forces of the Holy League were too fearful of a defeat on land and so, instead, attempted twice to land their forces near the fortress of Preveza in a bid for domination. However, each attempt was met with fierce resistance and courage by the Ottoman forces commanded by the revered Murat Reis, and the Christian coalition was ultimately repelled by the sheer might and courage of the Muslim soldiers.

In the early hours of the 27th of September 1538, Barbarossa sailed his fleet southwards along the coast of the Mediterranean Sea to attempt deploying his fleet in a daunting fighting position; he was determined to engage the papist forces commanded by Venetian Admiral Andrea Doria. As night fell, Doria’s vessels took post at Sessola, close to the island of Lefkada, and considered their options for the ensuing battle. But to their surprise, in the early morning light of the 28th, they saw that the Muslims had also set sail and were heading in their direction.

As the two fleets approached one another just miles off the coast of Lefkada Island, the Ottoman fleet formed the shape of a crescent. Barbarossa himself took command of the middle wing, flanked by his son Hasan and his stepson, Hasan Agha. Sinan Reis, Jaafar Reis, and Shaaban Reis led the middle wing, while the right wing was commanded by Salih Reis and the left wing by Sidi Ali Reis. In the rear, Turgut Reis (aka Dragut) stood ready as reserves, with Murad Reis, Sadiq Reis, and Quzlja Muhammad under the direct command of Khayr al-Din.

Unprepared for such a bold move by the numerically inferior Turkish vessels, Doria was uncertain how to proceed; it took him three hours to ready his ships for battle.

The papist fleet, possessing large sailing ships that carried thousands of soldiers, lined up in the front. But Khayr al-Din was not intimidated; he knew that a frontal assault would be futile, so he ordered his fleet to attack with artillery from a distance. The Ottoman admiral Kamal Reis had developed cannons that had a range greater than any that existed at that time, and these proved to be a decisive advantage.

With the wind at their backs and the sun rising higher in the sky, the Ottoman fleet fought with valor. They had faith in God, in their leader, Khayr al-Din, and in the justness of their cause.

With a keen strategic mind, Khayr al-Din positioned his fleet in such a way that the missiles from his ships could decimate his opponent’s, while the coalition’s artillery, with a shorter range, could not reach the Ottoman fleet. Doria, the enemy commander, attempted to outmaneuver Khayr al-Din by approaching from the rear, but Khayr al-Din was not easily fooled. He realized the plan and took measures to counter it.

The two fleets ultimately clashed in the Gulf of Arta near Preveza, where Doria’s lack of wind put his forces at an immediate disadvantage, and the Venetian flagship Galeone di Venezia became trapped four miles from land and ten miles from Sessola; surrounded by the enemy, her guns roared into action during a prolonged and bloody battle. Meanwhile, the Christian navy desperately tried to come to her rescue, only managing to do so when the wind began to pick up. At the left wing of the combined fleet, Ferrante Gonzaga, Viceroy of Sicily, led the charge, while the Maltese Knights held the right wing.

In this desperate moment, the ships commanded by Barbarossa, his son Hasan Reis, Seydi Ali Reis, Salih Reis, Turgut Reis, Murat Reis, Güzelce Mehmet Reis, and Sadık Reis, were lined up in a Y-shaped formation. In opposition, Doria had placed four of his swiftest galleys under the command of his nephew Giovanni Andrea Doria and had formed a long line, flanked by the Papal and Venetian galleys of Grimani and Capello, with the Venetian galleons under the command of Alessandro Condalmiero, the Spanish-Portuguese-Genoese galleons under Francesco Doria, as well as barques and support ships.

As the battle raged on, Khayr al-Din made a bold move and deliberately changed the direction of his ships, striking the coalition ships from the side. When Doria attempted a reverse maneuver, Khayr al-Din’s fleet moved in response, leaving no opportunity for attack. Doria had been using the large ships in his first echelon as a shield, but Khayr al-Din launched a surprise attack from the sidelines, targeting the galleys in the second echelon of the coalition fleet. This caused a rift in their ranks and allowed the Ottoman reserve force to move in and attempt to surround the coalition fleet once more.

The Ottomans eagerly engaged the Venetian, Papal, and Maltese ships, but Doria hesitated to bring his center into action against Barbarossa. As a result, much maneuvering ensued but little fighting occurred. Barbarossa, taking advantage of the lack of wind which prevented the Christian barques from moving, made these an easy target for the Turks. They boarded the barques from their more mobile galleys and galliots. Doria’s attempt to trap the Ottomans between the cannon fire of his barques and galleys was to no avail; he was completely losing control of the situation.

As the winds of fate blew fiercely, the papist alliance fleet found themselves in a state of disarray. But ironically, it was these very winds that ultimately saved them from being fully eaten by the Ottoman fleet led by the formidable Khayr al-Din. With the wind at their back, the Christians swiftly turned their ships and fled the battlefield.

This last Ottoman attack greatly stunned Doria and the leaders of the coalition, causing their ships to collide with one another and resulting in heavy losses. Realizing that the tide of battle had turned against him, Doria formally ordered a retreat. Khayr al-Din and his fleet had emerged victorious, their skill, determination, and faith in God having led them to triumph over their enemies. Despite being heavily outnumbered by the Christian forces by more than 3 to 1, the Ottomans prevailed in this memorable naval battle, a feat that would be praised by historians for many centuries to come.

By sunset, the Muslims had successfully sunk, destroyed, or captured 128 ships and taken about 3,000 prisoners. Although the Muslims did not lose a single ship, they sustained 400 casualties and 800 wounded in the fierce battle. The impressive Venetian flagship, the Galeone di Venezia under the command of Alessandro Condalmiero, had put up a heroic fight, but ultimately the gallant Ottoman forces triumphed.

As the night began to settle, the shrewd Doria seized the opportunity and ordered his fleet’s lamps to be extinguished to effect a successful escape from Turgut Reis, who was still chasing them ever since he fled the battlefield. In the darkness, Doria was able to make a daring escape, though not without loss. Despite the efforts of Turgut Reis, who had been ordered to give chase by Khayr al-Din, several ships were hit by artillery. The following morning, with a favorable wind, the Christian forces completed their retreat to Corfu, much to the despair of the Venetian, Papal, and Maltese commanders who had begged Don John of Austria to stay and fight.

This remarkable victory secured Ottoman dominance in the Mediterranean until the Battle of Lepanto in 1571. Khayr al-Din immediately sent his trusted protégé and stepson, Hasan Agha, to relay a message of victory to Sultan Suleiman. Upon meeting the sultan Hasan Agha relayed the news of Khayr al-Din’s triumphs and Suleiman, filled with pride and admiration, ordered the declaration of victory in various Ottoman provinces and bestowed upon Khayr al-Din a generous reward of one hundred thousand coins of silver.

After the battle of Preveza, Khayr al-Din sailed to capture the island of Kefalonia, where he remained for fifteen to twenty days before departing for his next conquest.

It should be noted that this momentous battle was the largest naval conflict in the Mediterranean since the Battle of Thaat Al-Sawari (Battle of the Masts) in 654 CE after centuries of land-based crusades had largely replaced traditional sea-based warfare. By achieving such an impressive feat, Barbarossa and his Muslim forces had proven that they were capable of standing against the might of the combined Christian superpowers of the Mediterranean. This was a crucial achievement that would embolden Muslims for many years to come, and one that would forever cement Barbarossa’s place among history’s greatest military and naval commanders.

With the island of Kefalonia captured and the Western coasts of Greece secured, Khayr al-Din and his fleet set sail for Konstantiniyye to spend the winter. The Ottoman Sultan, recognizing Khayr al-Din’s achievements and his solid devotion to the cause of Islam, bestowed upon him the title of al-Ghazi (aka the Mujahid), the highest honor in the Ottoman Empire, given to leaders who achieve impressive victories.

Master of the Sea

In the summer of 1539, Khayr al-Din launched a series of daring and successful military campaigns, capturing the islands of Skiathos, Skyros, Andros, and Serifos, and reclaiming the strategically important Castelnuovo, which the Christian coalition had seized it after their defeat at the Battle of Preveza. He also successfully laid siege to the Castle of Risan and, accompanied by the skilled and respected Sinan Reis, launched a fierce attack on the Venetian fortress of Cattaro and the Spanish fortress of Santa Veneranda near Pesaro. Through his valor and strategic acumen, Barbarossa succeeded in eliminating any remaining Christian outposts in the Ionian and Aegean Seas.

The Republic of Venice, recognizing the might and power of the Ottoman Empire, ultimately signed a peace treaty with the great Sultan Suleiman in October 1540, agreeing to acknowledge the Ottoman territorial gains and to pay the substantial sum of 300,000 gold ducats in tribute.

The grand Ottoman Empire had a strategic vision for the eastern Mediterranean, one that involved not the destruction of Venice, but rather the imposition of their control over the waters of the region. They understood the tremendous potential for trade and commerce between Egypt and the Levant and saw Venice as a valuable partner in this effort. However, as the threat of war loomed ever closer, the Venetians came to realize that their alliance with the Ottomans was proving to be a disaster for them. They knew that if they did not break away from this alliance, the Ottomans would only continue to impose harsher terms upon them. Despite this, the Ottomans never wavered in their belief that a prosperous trade relationship with Venice was in the best interest of both parties in the long run.

Still, in the same year, the fearless Barbarossa led a crew of 2,000 brave warriors and captured the town of Gibraltar, ransacking it and taking 75 prisoners, decimating the population, and leaving the town barren of a generation of its inhabitants.

Poor Charlie Tries Again

Emperor Charles V, recognizing Barbarossa’s unmatched talents, sent a delegation via Andrea Doria who then contacted the Ottoman admiral once again to offer him the position of Admiral-in-Chief of the Holy Roman Empire’s entire navy, as well as the position of ruler of Spain’s territories in North Africa, but the honorable and loyal Barbarossa refused the offer, staying true to his fear of God, devotion to the Ottoman Empire, and loyalty to the cause of Islam. The delegation was arrested and Charles V’s efforts failed.

As the year 1540 came to a close, the entire continent of Europe was in turmoil, but none more so than the mighty Charles V. Despite his efforts, the Venetians had repeatedly turned their backs on him, and most recently, formed a commercial agreement alongside a peace treaty with the Ottomans. Charles V’s dreams of conquest in the Mediterranean, particularly in Algeria, seemed to be slipping away; he simply refused to accept defeat. In his mind, the occupation of Algeria was crucial to achieving his ultimate goal of a Catholic coastline along the Maghreb.

With determination in his heart, Charles V rallied the remaining ships of the holy league and set out to amass an enormous fleet. Over 450 transport ships were gathered to carry 24,000 infantry and 2,000 cavalries, along with support troops from the Pope. The fleet was led by the Pope’s grandson and was declared a holy crusade, deceiving the common people into believing that their sins would be forgiven if they participated in the expedition.

On the 28th of Jumada al-Akhira 948 A.H. (1541), Charles V’s fleet set sail and landed in the Gulf of Algeria, to the left of Wadi al-Harash. The imposing armada paraded in front of the city for two days, seeking to intimidate the people. But the valiant leader Hasan Agha and his army of 6,000 fighters refused to surrender. They rallied the tribes and swore to defend their land until the last drop of blood. They formed mobile cavalry units to strike at the flanks and rear of Charles V’s army as they marched forward.

As the siege came to a close, a fierce storm swept over the land, catching the invading army off guard. They had not yet lowered their cannons or taken down their tents, arrogant in their belief of victory. But the rain fell like a curse upon their gunpowder, drenching their weapons and leaving them vulnerable.

As dawn broke and the Muslim call to prayer echoed through the land, the tribal defenders, led by the brave Haji Bakr, launched a surprise attack on the Italians on the left wing of the enemy. Their ferocity was too much for the invaders, who were quickly scattered and driven from their positions.

The gates of the city were suddenly opened, and the defenders rushed inside for shelter. The gates were closed once more, trapping the attackers outside and leaving them at the mercy of the defenders who now held the high ground. From the walls, the Muslim warriors rained down gunfire and artillery upon the enemy, causing heavy casualties and crushing their morale.

Charles V, desperate to save face, ordered a general attack, but it was doomed to failure. His army’s morale was broken, their gunpowder was wet and useless, they lacked the artillery to breach the walls and cover the attack, and the storms made it impossible for ships to approach the coast. And this was the Battle of Bab al-Wad (or Bab El Oued).

As the fleet of Andrea Doria set sail to the open sea, they were met with ferocious storms that lasted for days. Despite their efforts to avoid collision with the coast, the tempest destroyed one hundred and fifty transport ships, along with their cannons and supplies. Fortunately, the Muslim slaves who were chained in the rowing ships also revolted, causing sixteen galleys to lose control and crash against the hazardous shoreline, setting a whole bunch of the oarsmen free.

Despite the violent weather, however, the valiant Algerian defenders did not give up hope; they fought bravely and managed to save around 1,400 Muslim galley slaves from certain death.

Despite this initial setback, Charles V persisted in his crusade but soon realized that it was an abject failure. The depletion of the army’s supplies and the harsh conditions of the four-day march in which they had to slaughter horses for food only added to the crusaders’ exhaustion. Day and night, the raids of the unbending tribesmen further drained the crusader army.

In the face of such dire circumstances, Charles V could not find anything to draw himself closer to God except to order the gathering of the Jews from the city of Béjaïa. He then proceeded to kill some of them and enslave the rest.

These actions, along with the countless atrocities committed by the crusaders in the past against the Morisco Muslims, including the Inquisition courts, and against the people of the Maghreb countries, such as the massacre in Tunisia in 1535, resulted in the crusaders gaining a wicked reputation. This led to popular solidarity with the Ottoman government and a fierce determination to resist the Spanish no matter the cost.

This failed crusade of Charles V and his army was a decisive moment in history, one that forever changed the course of events in the western Mediterranean. Khayr al-Din and the defenders of Algiers managed to repulse the invading forces after just twelve days of fierce battles. Despite the great loss of life and material, the crusaders were ultimately defeated, their fleet decimated and their dreams of conquest dashed.

But Khayr al-Din was not content to simply sit back and celebrate his victory. He knew that the enemy would not give up easily, and so he set sail to engage the remaining crusaders. Though he arrived too late to catch them, he made his presence felt along the Spanish and Italian coasts, sending a clear message that the Ottoman Empire would not tolerate any attacks on its dominions.

The impact of this campaign was far-reaching. The so-called holy alliance of the Catholics was broken, and Charles V was forced to abandon his ambitions of Maghrebi invasion and domination. The Mediterranean came to be known as the Ottoman Lake, and the influence of the Spaniards in North Africa was forever diminished. The people of Tlemcen declared their loyalty to Khayr al-Din, and the cities of Béjaïa and Oran were reduced to isolated outposts. This was the beginning of the end for the Spanish presence in Algeria, and a new era of Ottoman dominance was born.

Nice

As the German Protestant princes banded together against the so-called Holy Roman Empire, Charles V’s condescending and brazen behavior reached new heights. But the French monarch, Francois I, was not one to back down in the face of this materializing threat. He resumed the war against Charles V in northern Italy, determined to put an end to Charles’ attempts to consolidate his reputation through his failed military campaigns in Algeria.

Relations between France and Charles V reached new lows with the killing of French envoys traveling through northern Italy, on their way to Venice and Kostantiniyye. Francois I turned to the Ottomans for support. The Ottoman Empire, under the leadership of Sultan Suleiman, did not disappoint. Khayr al-Din, at the helm of a mighty fleet of 210 ships (70 galleys, 40 galliots, and 100 other warships) carrying 30,000 soldiers, navigators, and oarsmen, set sail toward Marseille.

This was no ordinary naval campaign, but a grand display of military might and solidarity as Khayr al-Din, along with a contingent of the Ottoman army, journeyed to aid France in her war against Charles V’s hegemony. Along the way, Barbarossa tried to capture Reggio Calabria but was met with resistance by Diego Gaetani, the governor, which resulted in the death of three of the admiral’s sailors after the governor fired a cannon shot toward the Muslim fleet in response to Khayr al-Din’s request, asking them to submit. In response, Barbarossa laid siege on the city, and upon capturing it, he continued further south. The fleet then anchored on the coasts of Campania and Lazio, all the while, Francis I assured the people of Rome that the war was solely directed at Charles V and that their city would not be touched.

From there, Barbarossa turned his attention to the western Mediterranean islands and settlements, launching raids on a number of Italian and Spanish territories. Finally, on July 5th (or 10th), 1543, Khayr al-Din and his fleet reached Toulon before making their way to Marseilles on the 21st of the month. At this time, however, the French forces weren’t prepared at all; meanwhile, Barbarossa visited the harbor of Toulon a few days later where he was received with honors at the harbor of Marseille; it was also there where the Ottoman forces finally joined the French forces under Marseille’s governor, François. The Franc-Ottoman fleet departed Marseille in the first week of August.

Nice at the time was under the control of Charles III, Duke of Savoy, an ally of the Habsburgs. Despite Nice being a French protectorate for more than a century, Francis I, with the assistance of the Ottomans, launched an attack on the city due to the duke’s allegiance with the Habsburgs, which had already angered the French king. The surprise attack led by François de Bourbon had previously been repulsed by Andrea Doria, yet Barbarossa along with the Franco-Ottoman forces was determined to conquer Nice and bring it into their fold. This siege was a part of the Italian War of 1542–46 in which Francis I and Suleiman the Magnificent allied against the Holy Roman Emperor Charles V and Henry VIII of England.

On the 22nd of August, the Ottoman fleet combined with 50 French ships, under the orders of King Francis I and the guidance of the Ottoman admiral, proceeded to attack the city of Nice. Despite the fierce resistance from the defenders of the city, the Franco-Ottomans eventually succeeded in taking the city on the same day. However, the allies’ ambition of conquering the citadel of Cimiez was thwarted because the thrifty French didn’t (or couldn’t) supply sufficient gunpowder to their Ottoman allies, who were consuming enormous amounts from the large number of cannons they had across their fleet of 210 ships.

Undeterred, the Ottoman forces launched another attack on the castle on 8th September but were eventually forced to retreat upon learning that one of Charles V’s armies was marching toward them. Facing overwhelming odds, Barbarossa and his troops plundered the city, burned parts of it, and took 5,000 captives before finally leaving the city. Nonetheless, a relief army was soon transported on ships by the Italian admiral Andrea Doria and successfully made its way to the Nice citadel.

During the campaign, Barbarossa is known to have complained about the state of the French ships and the inappropriateness of their equipment and stores, saying, “Are you seamen to fill your casks with wine rather than powder?” Despite this, Barbarossa displayed great reluctance to attack Andrea Doria when his ships were caught in a storm, which led some to believe that some kind of agreement had been made between the two admirals.

The Hospitable Friend

Following the siege of Antibes and the Île Sainte-Marguerite near Cannes, the Ottoman captain landed at Toulon. In the eyes of Charles V, Toulon was a strategic city of great value to the Holy Roman Empire, and it hurt his eyes to see the city placed under the command of the great Khayr al-Din . As a gesture of goodwill and friendship, Francis I allowed Barbarossa and his entire fleet to winter there; the Lord Lieutenant of Provence granted the inhabitants a reprieve from the taille tax for 10 years, as a sign of his protection toward them (and to prevent them from complaining about the acceptance of a massive Muslim army in their city for the whole winter). The inhabitants were also asked to leave the city to avoid conflict with the culturally different Ottomans.

Additionally, the Toulon Cathedral was transformed into a mosque and the call to prayer rang through the city five times a day, while Ottoman coinage became the currency of choice; the Ottomans indeed enjoyed the hospitality of King Francis I of France. Even more, an Ottoman slave market was established as well; Christian slaves were sold in Toulon during this period.

“Lodge the Lord Barbarossa sent to the king by the Great Turk, with his Turkish Army and grand seigneurs to the number of 30,000 combatants during the winter in his town and port of Toulon… for the accommodation of the said army as well as the well-being of all this coast, it will not be suitable for the inhabitants of Toulon to remain and mingle with the Turkish nation, because of difficulties which might arise.”
— Instruction of Francis I to his Lord Lieutenant of Provence.

During their stay in Toulon, the Ottomans were provided with 10 million kilograms of bread from French bakeries to help in their provisioning for the following summer’s campaign and return trip to Konstantiniyye. Though France faced criticism from other European powers for the alliance between them and the Ottomans, relations between the two remained tense and suspicious. The city of Toulon provided a convenient base for the Ottomans, where they could easily refit their ships at the expense of France and maintain an effective blockade of Christian shipping. Despite the Lord Lieutenant’s protests that Barbarossa was “emptying the coffers of France”, the admiral found the city to be highly pleasant and convenient.

Barbarossa was promised aid from the French should he set sail for Tunis, and with the blessing of Francis I, the Ottomans also used Toulon as a raiding base for regional corsairing. During this time, Admiral Salih Reis led the Ottoman forces in their attacks against the Spanish and Italian coasts, raiding and bombarding Barcelona, San Remo, Borghetto Santo Spirito, Ceriale, and other ports in Spain and Italy, in addition to defeating various Italo-Spanish naval attacks.

Barbarossa and his fleet of 110 galleys and 30,000 troops then set sail for Genoa to negotiate the release of Turgut Reis. And so, on the 23rd of May, 1544, the Ottomans, after a stay of 8 months, finally departed from their Toulon base. As a condition of their departure, Francis I had to pay 800,000 in coin and release all the Muslims that were rowing French galleys. To provision his fleet, Barbarossa pillaged five French ships in the harbor of Toulon.

Alongside Barbarossa’s fleet, the French galleys, under the command of Captain Polin, the Général des galères, set sail on a diplomatic mission to Sultan Suleiman. The French fleet accompanied Barbarossa during his raids on the west coast of Italy and in Sicily. He pillaged the cities of Porto Ercole, Giglio, Talamona, and Lipari and managed to take 6,000 captives. The French galleys eventually separated from Barbarossa’s fleet in Sicily and continued their voyage alone to Konstantiniyye.

This campaign would be one of the last major naval campaigns of Barbarossa before his death. Despite this, his exploits remain memorable, as does the might of his fleet, along with his command and mastery of the seas.

Final Ventures

In the spring of 1544, the mighty Khayr al-Din, with his 210 ships, descended upon the coastal town of San Remo, striking it with full fury and vanquishing the hopeless defenders in a fierce battle.

Barbarossa’s conquests did not end there, as he pressed on to the towns of Borghetto Santo Spirito and Ceriale, where he once again emerged victorious over the Christian fleets. Barbarossa’s true objective, however, lay in the city of Genoa, where his trusted companion and fellow warrior, Turgut Reis, had been captured and enslaved by the Genoese. With the threat of an all-out assault on the city, the Genoese leaders invited Barbarossa to discuss the matter with their admiral, Andrea Doria, at his palace in Fassolo.

The two sides then negotiated the release of Turgut Reis in exchange for a substantial sum of three thousand and five hundred golden ducats. With Turgut Reis by his side once more, Barbarossa turned his attention to the southern coast of France, where he successfully repelled further Spanish attacks. He then made one final stop in San Remo, assaulting the city for the third time before sailing toward Vado Ligure. The Republic of Genoa, in a desperate attempt to save their cities from further destruction, offered him a substantial sum of gold to spare them from his wrath.

In the same expedition, Barbarossa made his grand entrance before the island of Elba. With the power of his fleet and the might of his armies, he issued a dire warning to the city of Piombino, demanding the release of the son of the esteemed Sinan Reis, who had been captured and forcibly baptized by the Spaniards in Tunis a decade prior. His demands were promptly met, and the young man was freed.

With his mission accomplished, Barbarossa set his sights on new conquests. He then led his fleet to the province of Grosseto in Tuscany, where he captured the cities of Castiglione della Pescaia, Talamone, and Orbetello. In these cities, he struck a blow against the enemies of the Ottoman Empire, destroying the tomb of Bartolomeo Peretti, who had burned the house of Barbarossa’s father in Mytilene the previous year.

With these victories in hand, the Ottoman fleet moved on to Montiano, where they occupied Porto Ercole and the Isle of Giglio. They then set their sights on the city of Civitavecchia but were met with resistance from the French envoy, Leone Strozzi. With his powerful persuasion, Strozzi convinced Barbarossa to lift the siege and move on to new conquests.

Afterward, the Ottoman fleet sailed on to the coasts of Sardinia, where they assaulted the cities of Ischia, Forio, and Procida before threatening Pozzuoli. Encountering a fleet of 30 galleys under the command of Giannettino Doria, Barbarossa displayed his superior naval prowess and forced the enemy to flee toward Sicily, seeking refuge in the city of Messina.

As the winds of fate blew strong, the armies of the Ottoman Empire were momentarily hindered in their quest to conquer the city of Salerno. But the resoluteness of the great Barbarossa would not be swayed; the Muslims landed at the nearby Cape Palinuro, and from there began their march of triumph, sacking the nearby region before returning to their ships.

Barbarossa’s fleet then sailed through the Strait of Messina and made landfall at the cities of Catona, Fiumara, and Calanna, near the great city of Reggio Calabria. He then continued his march, landing at Cariati and finally at Lipari, where he would make his final landing on the Italian peninsula.

The city of Lipari, however, refused to surrender to the might of the Ottoman Empire, and so Barbarossa unleashed his fury upon the citadel, bombarding it for fifteen days without respite. In the end, however, the city was captured, and its inhabitants submitted to the fearsome Admiral.

One of the intended results of this whole campaign was to dedicate Khayr al-Din’s fleet as the long arm of the Ottoman Empire in the Western Mediterranean.

The Last Moments

After all these magnificent victories throughout the years, Barbarossa returned to the grand city of Kostantiniyye for a quick stop before departing again for his final naval expedition. He sailed west and bombarded the ports of the Spanish mainland before sailing toward the Balearic Islands, landing at Majorca and Menorca for the last time. With his fleet at his back, he sailed back to Konstantiniyye, where he built a palace on the Bosphorus in the present-day quarter of Büyükdere in the Sarıyer district.

In 1545, Barbarossa retired in Konstantiniyye, leaving his son Hasan Pasha as his successor in Algiers. He dictated his memoirs to Sinan Reis, which consisted of five hand-written volumes known as Gazavat-ı Khayr al-Din Paşa (Conquests of Khayr al-Din Pasha).

In 1546, Khayr al-Din ibn Ya’coub Pasha passed away in his seaside palace in the Büyükdere neighborhood of Konstantiniyye, on the northwestern shores of the Bosphorus. He was buried in a tall mausoleum (türbe) near the ferry port of the district of Beşiktaş on the European side of Konstantiniyye, which was built in 1541 by the famous architect Mimar Sinan, at the site where his fleet used to assemble. His memorial was built in 1944, next to his mausoleum.

The End of an Exemplary Era

Khayr al-Din was truly a shining light in the records of Islamic history during the first half of the sixteenth century CE. His impact on Algeria, North Africa, and the Ottoman Empire as a whole was immense and long-lasting. Beginning his journey as a merchant, Khayr al-Din and his brothers were moved to take up the cause of maritime struggle in response to the piracy perpetuated by the wretched Knights of Rhodes/St. John and other crusader forces in the Mediterranean. He taught himself the art of war and quickly rose through the ranks, commanding warships and eventually leading the Ottoman fleet. He was a masterful organizer, administrator, and politician, as well as a skilled strategist and tactician.

His charisma and distinguished personality drew great captains and administrators to his side, including his stepson Hassan Agha, his deputy over Algeria, and his son Hassan, who served as governor of Algeria three times. Other notable figures who graduated from Khayr al-Din’s hands include Turgut Reis, who served as the captain of the fleet and son-in-law, Sinan Reis, Piri Reis, Aydin Reis, Salih Reis, Kurtoğlu Reis, Deli Muhammad Reis, Zumrad Reis, and many others.

Though Khayr al-Din faced defeat a few times, his successes far outweighed his losses, for he was known for his tireless effort, perseverance, and hard work, always finding a way to turn defeat into victory. He was a brilliant planner and an even better implementer. Despite not being an artillery officer, he was a master of artillery and knew how to use cannons to his advantage in both defense and offense. As seen in the Battle of Preveza, he never allowed his enemy to gain the upper hand by dragging him into a field he was unfamiliar with. It was Khayr al-Din who deprived his opponents of the advantage by using faster, more maneuverable ships and tactics.

When the Ottoman fleet suffered defeat at the Battle of Lepanto in 1571, it was primarily due to the stubbornness of its commander in refusing to take the wise counsel of his captains, who were all students of the incomparable Khayr al-Din . The governor of Algeria, Kilij Ali Pasha, and the commander of the fleet, Turgut Reis, both of whom were of the second generation of Khayr al-Din’s school of naval warfare, were committed to following the principles laid down by their master; through a series of expert maneuvers, they were able to destroy the Maltese Knights at Lepanto, while their own fleet remained intact. This led to the Ottoman sultan appointing them to the prestigious positions of commanding the Ottoman fleet and the governorship of Algeria after Khayr al-Din’s time.

It is also worth noting that it was Khayr al-Din who imbued Algeria with its distinct identity and modernity. Despite numerous internal and external threats facing Algeria, Khayr al-Din, with his visionary insight, recognized that the true danger lay in external enemies. Therefore, while working to unify and fortify Algeria internally, he also took great care to maintain a strong, well-trained fleet to protect the country and secure its independence. Together with his brother Oruç, Khayr al-Din founded this fleet, and for the next three centuries, it was the most powerful and essential institution in Algeria, safeguarding the country’s autonomy. Alas, at the Aix-la-Chapelle Conference of 1818, European nations collectively conspired to eliminate Algeria. But it was not until 1830, after the complete defeat of the Algerian fleet at the Battle of Navarin in 1827, that the French were able to accomplish this. The battle was fought between the alliance of the Ottoman, Egyptian, and Algerian fleets on one hand and the alliance of the English and French fleets on the other.

For generations, the Serai point in Kostantiniyye reminded every passerby of the greatness of Khayr al-Din Barbarossa; ships passing through the area would fire a salute in honor of his memory. This custom was forgotten in the Tanzimat period but was eventually revived in 2019 by the Turkish navy, which paid homage to the historical significance of Khayr al-Din’s contributions to the Ottoman Empire and the whole of the Muslim world.

Khayr al-Din’s legacy endured long after his death. His ambition, courage, and leadership were admired by all Muslims. Khayr al-Din’s legacy is still felt today, and his story continues to be told, inspiring people of all backgrounds to pursue their own ambitions and strive for greatness.

Such were the deeds of the great and noble Khayr al-Din ibn Ya’coub, the one they called Barbarossa, a hero of the Ottoman Empire and a shining example of courage and strength in the face of the bitter enemies and struggles of the Islamic faith.

“As long as death is the end of every living thing, then let it be for the sake of God…”

– From the memoirs of Khayr al-Din

All images were sourced from Google Images.