Islamic Contributions Throughout the Ages
Firstly, it is a matter of great import to consider the complexities of the Graeco-Arabic translation movement that took place in the halls of learning in Abbasid Baghdad during the 9th to 11th centuries CE. The consequence of these translations was a profound one, for nearly all the philosophical and scientific works that lay within the purview of the translators were transformed into the Arabic tongue, thus ensuring that the Islamic civilization would forever be counted among the inheritors of the Graeco-Roman legacy. The preservation of these translations was instrumental in transforming the ancient Greek philosophical corpus into versatile tools for the exploration of the natural world, particularly in the field of medicine.
In the year 696 CE, the Umayyad Caliph, ʿAbd al-Mālik, made the momentous decision to standardize his imperial administration with the Arabic language, replacing both Greek in the Aegean and Farsi in the Near East. This decision had far-reaching political, social, and intellectual implications for the empire, elevating Arabic from an obscure tribal dialect to a universal language of administration, thought, and literature.
With the rise of the Abbasid dynasty in 750 CE and the transfer of the Muslim Empire’s capital to the newly-created city of Baghdad, the Islamic world entered a period of great intellectual and cultural flourishing that would come to be known as the Golden Age. Approximately 80 years after the dynasty’s ascension to power, the Abbasid Caliph al-Ma’mun established the Bayt al-Hikma, or the House of Wisdom, in Baghdad. This institution became a center of learning where Muslim and non-Muslim scholars alike gathered to expand the world’s knowledge through original writing and translation.
One of the most prolific translators of this era was none other than Hunayn ibn Ishaq, known in Christian realms by the Latinized name Joannitius. Dubbed the “sheikh of the translators,” he was a master of no less than four languages: Greek, Syriac, Farsi, and Arabic. Hunayn’s translations were grand and far-ranging, encompassing works on medicine, philosophy, astronomy, mathematics, magic, and even oneiromancy.
Medicine
In the field of medicine, the Islamic tradition stands tall as a comprehensive and holistic school of thought that has been in existence for over a millennium. Rooted in the scientific knowledge of ancient civilizations such as Egypt, Iran, Greece, Rome, India, and China, and complemented by the wise and divine teachings of Islam, Islamic medicine has evolved into a powerful and enduring medical system. For centuries, it has been the source of diagnosis and treatment for the masses living in diverse geographical regions. Some of its practitioners have earned worldwide recognition for their invaluable contributions to the world of science.
In the pre-Islamic era, there were several notable medical practitioners, including ibn Huzeem, Harith ibn Kalda al-Thaqafi, and Ndr ibn Harith, among others. With the spread of Islam, the Muslims made a concerted effort to collect and preserve the ancient texts and manuscripts of their predecessors. In their conquests, they valued such knowledge as the most precious of all booty, as we saw earlier with the Abbasid caliphs and their everlasting preference for the obtainment of books over any other type of war prize.
As the era of active conquest in the early centuries of Islam came to a close, the Arab people threw themselves into various branches of learning with great zeal. They worked tirelessly to translate the Greek, Persian, and Indian manuscripts they had acquired, with the aid of Nestorian translators. Aside from the Sheikh of the Translators which we already spoke of, some of the other prominent translators were Abu ‘Uthman al-Dimashqi, ibn Musa al-Nawbakhti, and Thabit ibn Qurra, among many others, who lived in the 10th century.
Within a century and a half after the merciful advent of Islam, Baghdad came under the rule of the Abbasids and Cordoba under the (Iberian) Umayyads. These cities became world-renowned centers of learning, particularly in the field of medicine. Notable physicians of the Umayyad era included ibn Uthal and Abu al-Hakam al-Dimashqi.
Ibn Uthal, a Christian, was the physician of the first Umayyad caliph, Mu’awiyah, and was known for his expertise in the science of poisons. During Mu’awiyah’s reign, many influential figures died mysteriously, and ibn Uthal was eventually killed in revenge. Abu al-Hakam al-Dimashqi, on the other hand, also a Christian physician, was known for his skills in therapeutics and was the physician to the second Umayyad caliph, Yazid.
Although the Muslim world faced many challenges in its early days, despite this, the brilliance of its people and their passion for learning allowed them to rise to the top of the scientific and educational world in an extremely short amount of time. This accomplishment stunned every other civilization with its speed and thoroughness, creating a legacy of Muslim dominance in the world of knowledge and sciences that lasts to this day. By continuing their pursuit of knowledge, the Muslims have become one of the most influential cultures and civilizations in history, and have contributed greatly to the advancement of human knowledge.
A Backdrop
But let’s rewind to a slightly earlier time, long before the flourishing of Abbasid learning; the age of translation into Arabic began during the reign of the Umayyad Caliphate, with Prince Khalid ibn Yazid (who was also an alchemist) leading the charge. Known for his love of alchemy, Prince Khalid employed the services of Greek philosophers residing in Egypt and generously rewarded them for translating Greek and Egyptian books on subjects such as chemistry, medicine, and astronomy.
During this time, the famous Arab chemist, Jabir ibn Hayyan, also known as Geber, made significant contributions to the field, including being the first to discover mercury. Jabir is also the author of a humungous number and variety of works in Arabic; this collection is often called the Jabirian corpus, and it covers many fields of study, including cosmology, astronomy, astrology, medicine, pharmacology, zoology, botany, metaphysics, logic, grammar, and many more subjects.
The Umayyads’ efforts to encourage the pursuit of knowledge from foreign sources were truly remarkable; however, they paled in comparison to what followed the establishment of the House of Wisdom in Baghdad.
One of the most remarkable achievements of the Umayyads was the construction of the first-ever hospital for lepers, located in Damascus. This poignantly demonstrates the compassion and humanitarianism of the Islamic empire, standing in sharp relief against the harsh and cruel treatment meted out to lepers in Europe during the same period, where, astonishingly, even six centuries later, they were still being executed by royal command.
The Umayyad Caliphate saw the spread of Islam across the vast territories, from China in the east to Iberia in the west, and the translation of scientific books into Arabic gained momentum. Under the succeeding Abbasids, the translation of ancient texts was greatly accelerated, with the richness and versatility of the Arabic language, its terminology, and its capacity for expression, playing a crucial role, as talked about in greater detail previously.
In the days of the Caliph al-Mansur, a renowned Syrian physician by the name of Jurjis ibn Jibrail was summoned to attend him. This remarkable man belonged to the respected family of Bakhtyishu, whose legacy of famed physicians spanned several generations. For three centuries, the Bakhtyishu family served at the Abbasid court, acquiring great wealth and positions of power that often surpassed that of princes and ministers. Some of them were even gifted translators of scientific texts and authors of numerous medical books.
Yuhanna ibn Masawaih was another physician in the court of Harun al-Rashid. At the request of the Caliph, he translated Greek medical books purchased from Byzantium and was the author of several books on fevers, nutrition, headache, and sterility in women. Caliph al-Mu’tasim, the successor of Harun al-Rashid, was so interested in Yuhanna’s work on dissection that he made a special room available for him to use, even going so far as to have apes specially brought from Nubia in Africa for his dissections.
Hunayn ibn Ishaq, as briefly mentioned earlier, was arguably the greatest translator in Arab history. After his death, his pupils and nephew, Hubaish, continued his work and even wrote books on medicine, including a treatise on nutrition which continues to benefit mankind today.
Many other prominent translators and philosophers also contributed to the development of medicine in the Arab world. Thabit ibn Qurrah wrote numerous books on various medical topics, as well as on philosophy and astronomy. Qusta ibn Luqa, a contemporary of AI-Kindi, translated many books into Arabic. Mankah the Indian was known for translating from Sanskrit into Arabic and translating a treatise on poisons written by the Indian physician Shanaq (Chanakra). These great minds of the past have forever left their mark on the field of medicine and their contributions are still celebrated today.
Oftentimes, history remembers the Abbasid Caliphs for their immense wealth and political power. However, it is important to note that their interest in the well-being of their people extends far beyond their political pursuits. Ali ibn Isa, a minister at the court of the Abbasids, recognized the need for better health care and tasked Sinan ibn Thabit, the court physician, with organizing regular visits to prisons by medical officers.
The Abbasids also took the initiative in establishing hospitals throughout the Muslim empire, starting with Baghdad in the ninth century during the reign of Caliph Harun al-Rashid. These facilities were designed with the utmost care and consideration, with separate wards for men and women, libraries, lecture rooms, and even pharmacies. We’ll take a look at the founding of hospitals and other medical-related topics momentarily.
This interest in public health also paved the way for a period of even greater creativity in the fields of science and learning. The latter half of the ninth and tenth centuries were marked by an outpouring of works on a wide variety of subjects, including medicine, philosophy, zoology, and astronomy. Al-Tabari, a physician who served under two Abbasid Caliphs, was one such individual who made immense contributions to these fields. He wrote an encyclopedic work that drew upon the teachings of Aristotle and Galen, and greatly influenced the works of those who came after him.
Botany & Agriculture
The charming land of Andalusia was mostly known for its scientific achievements in the fields of botany and agriculture, astronomy, and medicine (among many other fields such as theology, sociology, and so on). Since I wrote about the innovations of medicine in two previous articles, let’s move on to other fields.
Among the foremost experts in botany and agriculture during the 10th century were Abu ‘Ubaid al-Bakri and ibn Hajjaj. The 11th century was marked by the contributions of al-Ghafiqi and ibn al-Awwam, and the 12th century saw the works of Abu’l-‘Abbas al-Nabati and Abu Marwan ibn Zuhr. Yet, between these bright figures lay dozens of other agriculturalists who spread the knowledge and wisdom of their respective fields.
The 13th century saw the outstanding contributions of ibn al-Baytar, who is considered among the greatest botanists of the Middle Ages, and whose works on botany and agriculture remain unmatched in their depth and accuracy.
Verily, history has chronicled the countless contributions of the enlightened minds of the Muslim world since the advent of Islam. To enumerate all the works of these scholars and scientists would take an entire lifetime and yet, I shall still make an effort to highlight a few of their most prominent achievements.
Jabir ibn Hayyan, master chemist; Abu Ja’far ‘Abdallah al-Mansur, founder of the magnificent city of Baghdad and patron of scholarly translations; Harun al-Rashid, with his staunch support for science, art, and literature; Ibrahim al-Fazari and al-Khwarazmi, leading mathematicians and astrologers of their time; and the Brethren of Purity, a secret society that left a visible mark on history with their 52 epistles, to name a few. These brilliant minds, along with Muhammad ibn Aslam Al-Ghafiqi, ibn Hazm, Abu al-Majd ibn Abi al-Hakam, Abu Jafar ibn Harun al-Turjali, ibn Tumlus, ibn Tufail, Nur ad-Din al-Bitruji, and the countless other accomplished Andalusians that we didn’t get a chance to talk about in greater length, plus the many more from other parts of the Muslim world, have all left their mark in history.
Furthermore, we cannot forget to mention the memorable contributions of our women; one of those, Fatima al-Fihri, opened a whole new chapter of cultural and intellectual contributions in the records of Islamic history, particularly across the entire Maghreb region.
All images were sourced from Google Images.
