Luminaries from the Golden Age of Islam

In prior articles, I briefly acknowledged the exceptional minds of Al-Andalus; however, their brilliance surpasses mere mentions. In this exquisite article, I shall recount some of the most unforgettable Andalusian scientists that ever graced the pages of Muslim history. From botanists to visionary astronomers, their brilliance shines through the ages.

Luminaries from Al-Andalus

The land of Andalusia was mostly renowned for its scientific achievements in the fields of botany and agriculture, astronomy, and medicine (among many other fields such as theology, sociology, and so on). Since I wrote about the innovations of medicine in the previous two articles, let’s move on to the domains of agriculture and other non-medicinal matters.

Among the foremost experts in botany and agriculture during the 10th century were Abu ‘Ubaid al-Bakri and ibn Hajjaj. The 11th century was marked by the contributions of al-Ghafiqi and ibn al-Awwam, and the 12th century saw the works of Abu’l-‘Abbas al-Nabati and Abu Marwan ibn Zuhr. Yet, between these great figures lay dozens of other agriculturalists who spread the knowledge and wisdom of their respective fields.

In the 12th century, Andalusia also saw a critical shift in its astronomical thinking, with growing dissatisfaction with the Ptolemaic planetary system, voiced by prominent figures such as Jabir ibn Aflah, ibn Bajjah, and ibn Tufail. These philosophers, driven by their love of Aristotelian cosmology, offered critiques of Ptolemaic astronomy, leading to new theories such as ibn Bajjah’s system of eccentric circles and ibn Tufail’s theory of spiral motion. Though these new theories did not find practical applications, the Andalusian critiques of Ptolemaic astronomy left a lasting impact on the minds of Renaissance astronomers, forever shaping the course of celestial history.

The 13th century saw the outstanding contributions of ibn al-Baytar, who is considered among the greatest botanists of the Middle Ages, and whose works on botany and agriculture remain unmatched in their depth and accuracy. Since ibn al-Baytar’s works were highly relevant to the field of pharmacology, I took the liberty to write his account in the previous article alongside other notable pharmacologists from across the Muslim world. To honor this great man, I shall start this section by sharing a summary of his most-renowned book.

Indeed, the land of Andalusia was blessed with a rich tradition of botanical knowledge, a legacy cultivated by the wise and learned minds of its inhabitants. For the people of Al-Andalus, the study of botany was also a means to enhance the practical applications of their knowledge. They sought to understand the mysteries of the plant kingdom and apply this knowledge to the fields of agriculture and medicine.

The irrigation systems introduced by the Arabs transformed Andalusian agriculture into a marvel during their times (and after as well), as fields and gardens were blessed with a steady supply of water. This innovation, combined with the advanced practice of horticulture and agriculture, led to the creation of the “Spanish garden”, a unique form of the Persian garden that survives to this day.

Ibn al-Baytar

In ibn al-Baytar’s al-Mughni fi al-Tibb, the great Muslim physician analyzes the benefits of simple drugs for various ailments affecting the head, eyes, ears, nose, mouth, throat, chest, stomach, liver, spleen, intestines, rectum, kidneys, and bladder. He cites information from various sources, including al-Zahrawy, al-Razi, ibn Sina, Maimonides, and many others. Ibn al-Baytar also gives a great deal of attention to the role of nutrition in the healing process, as well as the drugs that may cause or heal their afflictions. In each chapter, he focuses on a specific area of the body and provides a thorough analysis of the symptoms and treatments of the related ailments.

For example, in chapter ten, ibn al-Baytar mentions the use of al-͗Ibzin (bathtub) as a method for healing kidney stones, which is a tradition from Iranian medical practices that later became popular in Ottoman civilization. Another notable aspect of the book is the focus on simple drugs, which are more accessible and affordable for many people than more complex remedies.

Finally, it is worth mentioning that the book is written in an engaging and enlightening style, capturing the tone and style of an early Muslim historian. Throughout this treatise, ibn al-Bayṭār demonstrates his vast knowledge and expertise in the field of medicine and provides valuable insights for practitioners and scholars alike.

Ibn al-Awwam

The Kitab al-Falahah (Book of Agriculture) by ibn al-Awwam is considered the most important work on the subject during the Middle Ages. Its 34 chapters dealt with the particulars and workings of agriculture and animal husbandry, and the book treated no fewer than 580 plants and discussed 50 fruit trees for cultivation. Its treatment of plant diseases and remedies, as well as its pioneering attempt to establish a new soil science, set it apart from other works in the field.

Al-Ghafiqi

Al-Ghafiqi was a renowned collector of plants in both Iberia and Africa, and his works on drugs and plants stand out as the most accurate in the history of Islam. Al-Ghafiqi was the greatest expert of his time on simples (mufradat), for his descriptions of plants were verily the most precise ever made. He named each plant in Arabic, Latin, and Berber, making his works a goldmine of knowledge for generations to come.

Al-Tujibi

Next, we have ibn Razīn al-Tujibi, a 13th-century Muslim-Andalusían scholar who left a lasting legacy in the culinary arts. He was the author of one of the only two cookbooks to have survived from the era, Fiḍālat al-Khiwān fī Ṭayyibāt al-Ṭaʿām wal-Alwān, a collection of delectable recipes and culinary delights from the Andalusian and Maghribi regions. Composed in Tunis around 1260 CE, this cookbook splendidly highlights the gastronomic prowess of the Andalusian people and continues to be a source of inspiration for cooks and food lovers alike.

Al-Jabali

The scholarly legacy of the esteemed physician and mathematician, Abu Abd Allah Mohammed ibn Abdun al-Jabali al-Adadi ought to be remembered as well. His invaluable contribution to the field of mathematics is displayed in his seminal work, the Risala fi al-Taksir (Treatise on Measurements), which stands as the oldest existing mathematical text from the Andalusian lands, to this day.

It is known that in the years following 958 CE, he went on a journey to the centers of learning in the lands of Arabia and Egypt, where he had the opportunity to hone his knowledge and expand his understanding. He spent time in the great city of Basra, before making his way to the flourishing metropolis of al-Fustat in Egypt. There, he was appointed as the head of the renowned hospital.

Al-Jabali was influenced by the ideas of the celebrated scholar, Abu Sulayman Sijistani, and it is said that he even had the privilege of meeting him in person during his stay in Basra. After sharpening his knowledge and expertise, the physician returned to Cordoba in 971 CE, where he was appointed to serve Caliph al-Mustansir, and later his son Hisham II al-Mu’ayad. He was also the teacher of the renowned physician, ibn al-Kattani.

Al-Qalasadi

Let’s also not forget Abū’l-Ḥasan ibn ʿAlī ibn Muḥammad ibn ʿAlī al-Qurashī al-Qalaṣādī, who also hailed from Al-Andalus; he shone as a brilliant star in the field of mathematics, particularly in the domain of Islamic inheritance jurisprudence. This learned scholar was held in high esteem by his peers and posterity and was credited by modern scholars as a pioneer in the introduction of algebraic symbolism. He wrote numerous treatises on arithmetic and algebra, the most notable of which was the legendary work al-Tabsira fi ‘lm al-Hisab (Clarification of the science of arithmetic).

Ibn Hajjaj

In Islamic history, Abū ‘Umar Aḥmad ibn Muḥammad ibn Ḥajjāj al-Ishbīlī is remembered as a distinguished figure of Andalusia, born into one of the ancient and noble families of Seville. He was widely admired in his time as a wazīr (minister of state), as well as a renowned khaṭeeb (due to his popularity for having exceptional oratory skills and delivery of sermons during Friday prayers). Additionally, his proficiency in the arts of letters earned him the title of adīb (man of letters). However, what is not commonly known about this illustrious figure is his contributions to the field of agriculture, for which he penned the seminal work, al-Muqni‘ fīl-Filāḥa (Sufficiency in Farming) in the year 466 A.H. / 1073 CE.

Ibn Ḥajjāj lived in an era of remarkable intellectual ferment, surrounded by fellow botanist-agronomists such as ibn Baṣṣāl, ibn al-Lūnquh, Abū’l-Khayr, and Al-Ṭighnarī, who undoubtedly must have known him and formed part of the same intellectual circles in Seville. Unfortunately, not much is known about his personal life and beliefs, yet his treatise on agriculture continues to be remembered as a milestone in Islamic intellectual history.

Ibn Hajjaj’s book, al-Muqni‘, despite being one of the primary sources consulted by the later agronomist ibn al-‘Awwām, is not known to have survived in its entirety. However, several extracts from the original text, nearly identical in content, have been discovered, providing insights into the cultivation of olive trees, vines, figs, and other garden and aromatic plants. These extracts have made it possible to verify the accuracy of the work and reconstruct much of its content.

What is particularly noteworthy about the treatise is its lack of direct citations from contemporary Andalusi agronomists, despite the author being well-acquainted with their works. Instead, ibn Ḥajjāj drew extensively from classical agronomical texts, referencing a total of 23 authors, with a special emphasis on the works of Democritus. This approach earned him great admiration from ibn al-‘Awwām, who wrote in the introduction to his own work:

“When I come to discuss the cultivation of lands, I always give precedence to the principles established by the shaykh al-khatib Abū ‘Umar ibn Ḥajjāj in his book, which has as its subject the theories of the ancients”.

Indeed, ibn Ḥajjāj was known to possess a wealth of practical knowledge in the field of agriculture. For example, we know from the accounts of ibn al-‘Awwām that he conducted experiments in olive propagation in the Aljarafe district outside Seville, demonstrating his mastery of both theoretical and practical aspects of agronomy.

Lubna al-Qurtubiyya

Then there is the Andalusian intellectual, mathematician, and poetess, Lubna al-Qurtubiyya, commonly referred to as Lubna of Cordoba, who was a shining gem of the 10th century. Born into slavery and raised within the Madīnat al-Zahrā palace, she rose to prominence as a member of Caliph al-Hakam II’s team of copyists. Together with Hasdai ibn Kaprut, she played a key role in the establishment of the famous library of Medina Azahara, which housed a staggering 400,000 books.

Her contemporaries extolled her for her intelligence, her mastery of grammar and poetry, and her erudition in arithmetic and other sciences. They praised her for her incomparable knowledge of mathematics and the exact sciences, and for her ability to solve even the most complex geometrical and algebraic problems of her time.

Al-Muradi

Verily, the name of ibn Khalaf al-Muradi, whose first name may have been Ahmad or Muhammad, deserves to be remembered and celebrated amongst the learned men of Andalusia. While the engineering prowess of the Bani Musa brothers and al-Jazari has earned them much renown, al-Muradi remains a hidden gem, deserving of further exploration, although to a certain extent, of course.

It is recorded that al-Muradi was the first to conceive and construct the geared clock, a wondrous water clock that employed a complex mechanism of gears, including both segmental and epicyclic gear trains, capable of transmitting high torque with remarkable efficiency. He was also the author of the technological manuscript entitled Kitāb al-Asrār fī Natāij al-Afkār, a tome that was much sought after and widely used in the court of Alfonso VI of León and Castile in the 11th century.

The contents of this manuscript reveal the vast knowledge and ingenuity of al-Muradi, as he provided instructions and diagrams describing 31 marvels of engineering, including 15 clocks, 5 grand mechanical toys, 4 war machines, 2 machines for drawing water from wells, and a portable sundial. Among these, attention is especially drawn to three clocks, namely the solar rays clock, the double barrel 24-hour clock, and many other ingenious devices.

It is also recorded that al-Muradi was among the first to make use of mercury in his hydraulic linkages, thereby solving the problem posed by the varying behavior of water in response to changes in room temperature. This was made possible by the abundance of mercury from the cinnabar mines of Almadén, which had been producing this precious metal since Roman times and provided regional scientists with ample opportunities for experimentation and innovation.

It is believed that al-Muradi may have dwelled in Toledo, under the patronage of Yahya al-Mamun of Banu Dhil-Nun, a Berber dynasty that ruled Toledo during the 11th century and was highly noted for its support of technological marvels. Al-Muradi should not be confused with Ali ibn Khalaf al-Saydalani, the Andalusian mathematician and astronomer who was a contemporary of the famous astronomer and instrument maker al-Zarqali and a member of the scientific circle of Saʿid Al-Andalusi.

Al-Majriti

There also lived another man of great learning and wisdom, Abu al-Qasim Maslama ibn Ahmad al-Majriti, also known as Methilem. During the reign of al-Hakam II, this extraordinary Muslim astronomer, chemist, mathematician, economist, and scholar shone as bright as the North Star.

Al-Majriti was not content to simply bask in the light of his own knowledge, but instead sought to bring the wisdom of the ancients to his own people. He played a significant role in translating Ptolemy’s Planisphaerium and improving existing translations of the Almagest. He also improved upon the astronomical tables of Muhammad ibn Musa al-Khwarizmi and made it possible for historians to convert Persian dates to the Hijri years with ease.

Such was his knowledge and mastery of the sciences of mathematics and astronomy that Said Al-Andalusi proclaimed him to be the greatest of his time in Al-Andalus. He worked closely with his colleague ibn al-Saffar to introduce new methods of surveying and triangulation, and he wrote a treatise on the economy of Al-Andalus. He even had a hand in editing and improving the Encyclopedia of the Brethren of Purity when it arrived in his land.

Al-Majriti was also a visionary, for he predicted the future of scientific exchange and the creation of networks for the sharing of knowledge. He founded a school of Astronomy and Mathematics, marking the beginning of organized scientific research in Al-Andalus. Some of his most illustrious students were ibn al-Saffar, Abu al-Salt, and al-Turtushi.

Fatima al-Majritiya

As we’ve seen thus far, it was not only men that shone in the field of the stars in Al-Andalus, for there was also Fatima al-Majritiya, daughter of the aforementioned Abu al-Qasim Maslama. Also known as Fatima of Madrid, she was a distinguished female Muslim astronomer and astrolabes manufacturer. Though she is said to have been a mathematician as well, it was in the field of astronomy that she truly excelled. She worked, wrote, and contributed to the astronomical knowledge of her time, including the famous astronomical tables of Muhammad ibn Musa al-Khwarizmi.

Her Corrections from Fátima, a series of astronomical and mathematical treatises, have been lost to the ages, but her name lives on in the records of history. It is also said that she co-authored A Treatise on the Astrolabe with her father, which remains a valuable resource for those who seek to understand the intricacies of the astrolabe.

Fátima was not content with simply mastering the knowledge of her time, but sought to expand her understanding by learning to speak, read, or write in Arabic, Spanish, Hebrew, Greek, and Latin. She wrote several zījes, or Islamic astronomical treatises, covering a wide range of topics including calendars, ephemerides of the planets, the sun and the moon, and the workings of solar and lunar eclipses.

Al-Zarqali

Yet another brilliant astronomer emerged from Al-Andalus whose name is worth mentioning: al-Zarqali, aka Azarquiel. This inventor of renown was celebrated for his creation of the sahifah, a marvelous device of celestial navigation, which was made famous throughout Christian realms with the publication of its detailed descriptions in Latin, Hebrew, and other tongues of Europe.

As an observer of the heavens, al-Zarqali’s greatest legacy was his revision of the Toledan Zij (The Toledo Tables), a set of astronomical tables based on observations conducted in Toledo, which was the product of collaboration with his fellow Muslim and Jewish scientists. This remarkable work of art garnered widespread attention from astronomers in both the Muslim and Latin worlds and was relied upon for generations.

Indeed, even Nicolaus Copernicus, in his seminal work, De Revolutionibus Orbium Clestium, acknowledged al-Zarqali’s invaluable contributions to the field of astronomy. Al-Zarqali was not only a meticulous observer, but a brilliant theoretician as well, having written a proof of the motion of the sun’s apogee relative to the fixed stars, calculating its rate of motion to be 12.04 seconds per year, a figure remarkably close to modern calculations of 11.8 seconds.

Ziryab

Oh, one could not get enough of the delightful tales of the beloved polymath, Ziryab, whose voice could soar to the heavens like the blackbird for which he was named! This virtuoso, who hailed from Baghdad and found his home in Cordoba, was well-learned in multiple fields, including music, poetry, cuisine, fashion, and cosmetology. He established one of the earliest schools of music in Cordoba, in which he was acclaimed for his prowess on the Oud, a musical instrument he augmented by adding an additional string.

His contributions to the world of aesthetics, gastronomy, and fashion were nothing short of revolutionary. Ziryab was an early advocate of grooming and hygiene, promoting the use of deodorants, shampoos, and hair preparations made from rose water and herbal salts. He even decried those who failed to take daily baths or attend to their appearance (I wonder what he would have done if he paid a visit to Europe back in the day!). Ziryab is also credited with the introduction of the concept of a three-course meal, to be enjoyed at a well-laid table, accompanied by fine beverages served in crystal glasses.

Ibn Firnas

Moving on, it is also with great honor that we recall the remarkable innovations of Abbas ibn Firnas, who truly deserved the title of “inventor”. His creativity was boundless, and he was always at work inventing new instruments, designing a planetarium, cutting rock crystals, and setting astronomical tables, all while crafting beautiful poetry. In 875 CE, he made history as he built himself a glider and flew from a tower, predating Leonardo Da Vinci by six hundred years. Though his landing was less graceful, his flight was a triumph, and he is remembered as an early pioneer of human flight. Sadly, he passed twelve years later, possibly due to the injuries sustained from his historic flight. Yet, his legacy lived on, inspiring generations to come with his boundless curiosity and innovative spirit.

Al-Tighnari

In the second half of the eleventh century, the Banū Murra, a noble family of Alquería (aka al-qarya, or rural community on the outskirts of cities/medinas) of Ṭighnar, North of Granada, gave birth to a son named Abū ‘Abd Allāh Muḥammad ibn Mālik al-Murrī, better known as Al-Ḥājj al-Gharnāṭī or Al-Ṭighnarī.

Al-Ṭighnarī was not just a simple man but a scholar and a poet of great repute, possessing a vast knowledge of agriculture which he meticulously recorded in his remarkable treatise entitled Kitāb Zuhrat al-Bustān wa-Nuzhat al-Adhhān. This work showcased his skills as an agronomist, as it was written with a blend of scientific knowledge and literary elegance, though only a portion of the original work remains; its significance, however, cannot be overstated.

Al-Ṭighnarī began his career in the court of the Zirid prince ‘Abd Allāh ibn Bulughghīn, but his thirst for knowledge and a desire to advance his studies in agriculture led him to leave Granada and venture to the taifa kingdom of Almería, where he conducted various experiments in the royal gardens of Al-Ṣumādiḥīya palace. He then went on a pilgrimage to Makkah, traveling through various parts of North Africa and the East, before returning to Al-Andalus.

Upon his return, al-Ṭighnarī divided his time between Granada and Seville, becoming part of the circle of agronomists and botanists under the guidance of ibn Baṣṣāl. Although the exact date of composition of his Zuhrat is unknown, it is deduced from the dedication he wrote in the book to the Almoravid governor of Granada, Abū ’l-Ṭāhir Tamīm ibn Yūsuf ibn Tāshfīn, who held office from 1107–10 CE and again from 1121–26, that it was written in the first decade of the twelfth century. Sadly, the date of Al-Ṭighnarī’s death remains a mystery, but his legacy lives on through his scholarly work, a true gem of Islamic agriculture and literature.

The Zuhrat, which was penned in the early decades of the 12th century, demonstrates Al-Ṭighnarī’s deep understanding not just of agronomy, but also of linguistics, botany, and medicine. It represents his scientific inquiry, drawing on a wealth of sources including the works of classical authors like Ptolemy, Hippocrates, Galen, and Dioscorides, as well as renowned Andalusian agronomists like ibn Baṣṣāl and ibn Wāfid. It also features an astronomical and meteorological calendar and, in the profiles of individual plants and trees, a section on their therapeutic and dietary properties. This information is checked, analyzed, and compared with the works of other authors, and then put to the test through Al-Ṭighnarī’s own experiments and observations.

Al-Ṭighnarī’s own observations and practical experience, gleaned from his time spent at the royal gardens of Almería and from alternating his residency between Granada and Seville, are integral to the treatise.

Al-Ṭighnarī’s treatise is of particular interest as it sheds light on the unique agricultural and horticultural practices of Granada, differentiating it from other regions of Al-Andalus like Toledo and Seville. Its practical nature, combined with its scholarly rigor, make it an invaluable resource for anyone seeking to deepen their knowledge of Andalusian agronomy. It is no wonder, then, that Al-Ṭighnarī was frequently cited by other Andalusian agronomists, including ibn al-‘Awwām and ibn Luyūn, who referred to him as The Pilgrim (Hajj) of Granada.

Ibn al-Saffar

Furthermore, it is my great pleasure to recount the accomplishments of the impressive astronomer, Abu al-Qasim Ahmad ibn al-Saffar, of Andalusia. This learned individual was a scholar at the renowned institution of learning established by his colleague, al-Majriti, in the flourishing city of Córdoba. His most notable contribution to the field of astronomy was his treatise on the astrolabe, a text that was widely used until the fifteenth century and had a strong impact on the works of the astronomer Kepler. Additionally, he wrote a commentary on the Zij al-Sindhind and accurately determined the coordinates of the holy city of Mecca.

Ibn as-Saffar’s influence was felt far and wide, as his works continued to inspire and shape the works of later astronomers, such as Abu al-Salt. The exoplanet, Saffar, also known as Upsilon Andromedae b, has been named in his honor, as well as the Saffar Island in Antarctica.

Sa’id Al-Andalusi

Then there was Saʿid Al-Andalusī, an erudite qadi of Toledo in Al-Andalus, who dedicated his life to chronicling the history of science, philosophy, and thought. His expertise in mathematics and science, particularly astronomy, led him to create a famous biographic encyclopedia of science, which gained widespread recognition throughout the Islamic empire and beyond.

Ibn Bassal

It is with great reverence and admiration that I do not forget to chronicle the achievements of one of our most astounding agricultural scientists, ibn Bassal, a master of the art of agriculture. Hailing from the fertile lands of Andalusia in the 11th century, this learned botanist and agronomist was a true pioneer in the field of horticulture and arboriculture.

Ibn Bassal served the court of al-Mutamid, the Emir of the Taifa of Seville, and created the magnificent Haaet al-Sulṭān botanical garden in Seville. After the conquest of Toledo by Alfonso VI, ibn Bassal journeyed to Seville, bringing with him a wealth of knowledge garnered from his travels on pilgrimage to far-flung lands, including Egypt, Sicily, Syria, Abyssinia, Yemen, Iraq, Iran, and India.

It was here that he wrote his most legendary work, the Dīwān al-Filāha (An Anthology of Husbandry), which was abridged during his lifetime into the Kitāb al-Qaṣd wal-Bayān (The Book of Concision and Clarity). This exhaustive manuscript, dedicated to the botanical garden of al-Ma’mūn in Toledo, demonstrated ibn Bassal’s immense knowledge of agronomy and horticulture.

Ibn Bassal, with his vast experience in the cultivation and care of crops, presents in his book a comprehensive catalog of over 180 cultivated plants, from chickpeas and beans to rice and peas, from flax and henbane to sesame and cotton, from safflower and saffron to poppies and henna, and including even the artichoke.

He further details the growth and cultivation of herbs and spices, including cumin, caraway, fennel, anise, and coriander, and of the bountiful array of vegetables that thrive under irrigation or plentiful watering, such as cucumbers, melons, mandrake, watermelons, pumpkins and squash, eggplant, asparagus, caper, and colocynth, and root vegetables such as carrots, radish, garlic, onion, leek, parsnip, the Sudanese pepper, and the dye-yielding madder. He also explores the realm of leaf vegetables, including cabbage, cauliflower, spinach, purslane, amaranth, and chard.

Furthermore, ibn Bassal’s expertise is shown in the realm of arboriculture as he provides a wealth of information on the propagation and cultivation of the palm, olive, pomegranate, quince, apple, fig, pear, cherry, apricot, plum, peach, almond, walnut, hazelnut, grape, citron, orange, pistachio, pine, cypress, chestnut, holm-oak, deciduous oak, tree of paradise, arbutus, elm, and ash.

It is noteworthy that in his discussion of the use of manure, ibn Bassal refers to a mixture of straw or sweeping mixed in as mudaf, thereby implying that the composition of manure is not solely of animal dung, but a mixture of various materials. This attention to detail and accuracy in his observations truly sets ibn Bassal apart as a master of his craft and a seminal figure in the history of agronomy.

The Dīwān al-Filāha also sheds light upon the importance of proper waste management in agriculture. Ibn Bassal distinguishes the characteristics of various forms of manure and their suitability for different crops. For instance, the sweepings from hot baths, although dry and salty, were not considered suitable for use as fertilizer unless mixed with other forms of manure.

With scrupulous detail, ibn Bassal provides two recipes for composting pigeon and possibly donkey manure, explaining the properties of pigeon dung, rich in heat and moisture, which were ideal for weaker and less hardy plants, especially those affected by cold temperatures. On the other hand, human waste was advised to be used in hot temperatures as it lacked any significant heat.

Ibn Bassal also issues a warning against the use of pig dung, which he states would destroy pastures and poison plants, a view shared by other writers such as the Roman Columella and Cassianus Bassus. Compost made without manure, known as muwallid, was also deemed less desirable and composed of herbage, straw, grass, ashes from ovens, and water.

The wisdom of ibn Bassal was passed down through the generations, with his works being studied several centuries later by Abu Jafar Ahmad ibn Luyūn al-Tujjbi of Almeria, who based his treatise, Kitāb Ibdā’ al-Malāha wa Inhaa al-Rajāha fī Usuul Sinā’at al-Filāha, upon the teachings of ibn Bassal. Thus, the legacy of ibn Bassal and his contributions to the science of agronomy continue to endure and enlighten future generations.

In addition to the Dīwān al-Filāha, ibn Bassal also authored The Classification of Soils, a treatise that divided soil fertility into ten classifications. This work was later translated into Castilian in the 13th century, ensuring that his legacy would spread throughout other realms.

Ibn al-Raqqam

And now I shall recount to you the story of the prodigious scholar and versatile master, ibn al-Raqqām. A man of rare and unequaled talent in the fields of arithmetic, geometry, medicine, astronomy, and other disciplines, ibn al-Raqqām was a true gem of his time.

According to the chronicles of the Andalusian historian, ibn al-Khatib, ibn al-Raqqām was a native of the region of Murcia. However, the footprint of his travels and erudition can be traced to the cities of Tunis and Bijaya, where he lived for a time and composed some of his most famous works. His astronomical treatise, al-Zij al-Qawim, indicates that he lived in Tunis, as it contains tables calculated for the coordinates of that city. Meanwhile, the existence of many astronomical tables computed for the latitude of Bijaya, as recorded in his other work, al-Zij al-Shamil, confirms that he lived in that city as well.

At the invitation of the second king of the Nasrid dynasty, Muhammad II, ibn al-Raqqām left Bijaya for Granada, where he lived until his passing. While in Granada, he taught medicine, jurisprudence, and a wide array of other subjects. His influence and legacy are evident through his students, such as Abu Zakariyyā ibn Hudhayl, who studied mathematics, geometry, algebra, and astronomy, and Nasr, another ruler of the Nasrid dynasty, who studied the composition of almanacs and the construction of astronomical instruments.

Ibn al-Raqqām was a prolific writer and author of several astronomical works, of which three have been preserved to this day. His two zijes, al-Zij al-Shamil fi Tahdhib al-Kamil and al-Zij al-Qawim fi Funun al-Tadil wal-Taqwim, were composed to make improvements to ibn al-Ha’im’s al-Zij al-Kamil. In his works, he sought to condense the explanations of the original, add missing tables, and revise parameters to better align computation with observation. One of the modifications made by ibn al-Raqqām in the canons was copying the words of ibn al-Ha’im without his geometrical demonstrations.

Despite similarities in format and shared numerical tables between the two authors’ versions, there were differences between the two zījes as they were formulated for specific locations. The tables in al-Zīj al-Qawīm, for example, were calculated for the latitude of Tunis, which shows that ibn al-Raqqām reworked the work after he arrived in Granada and had made a precise determination of the city’s latitude.

Ibn al-Raqqām’s Risaala fī ‘Ilm al-Zilāl is also a remarkable contribution to the field of gnomonics and remains the only complete Arabic treatise on the subject of Andalusian origin. The work, consisting of 44 chapters, details the construction of sundials and covers the mathematical and astronomical principles relevant to the field. The presentation of the work is well organized, graphic, and descriptive, showcasing ibn al-Raqqām’s ability to use the analemma, a technique not previously known in Andalusian gnomonics.

Ibn al-Khaṭīb mentions another astronomical work by ibn al-Raqqām, which may have been a revision of al-Manāj fī Ru-yāt al-Ahilla by ibn al-Bannāʾ. Among the non-astronomical works by ibn al-Raqqām, mentioned by ibn al-Khaṭīb, are a work written in the style of the great philosopher ibn Sīnā’s Kitāb al-Shifāa, a treatise on jurisprudence, and a summary of the Kitāb al-Ḥayawān wal-Khawāṣṣ, which dealt with medical cures using parts of animal bodies.

Al-Shajjar

I shall also recount the tale of one of the lesser-known luminaries of Andalusia, Abul-Khayr al-Ishbīlī, known as al-Shajjār, aka “the tree planter.” He was a son of Seville, famed for his mastery of the science of agriculture and the authorship of the highly regarded treatise, Kitāb al-Filāḥa. Moreover, he is believed to have also penned the anonymous ‘Umdat al-Tabīb fī Ma‘rifat al-Nabāt li-Kull Labīb, a botanical encyclopedia that holds great import in the histories of Islamic agriculture. Little is known of his life, save that he was a contemporary of Emir al-Mu‘tamid of Seville and that he passed on toward the end of the 11th century or the beginning of the 12th.

Abul-Khayr was greatly admired by the grand agronomist, ibn al-‘Awwām, who often cites his works in his own writings. Based on these citations, it can be deduced that Abul-Khayr lived in the second half of the 11th century and wrote his agricultural manual between 1070 and 1075 CE. He was a disciple of both ibn Baṣṣāl and the botanist-physician ibn al-Lūnquh, and he likely worked alongside them in the king’s experimental garden in Seville. Abul-Khayr was part of the distinguished circle of 11th-century Andalusian agronomists, horticulturists, and botanists, which included ibn Baṣṣāl, ibn al-Lūnquh, ibn Hajjāj, and al-Ṭighnarī.

In his Kitāb al-Filāḥa, Abul-Khayr proclaimed agriculture to be a well-founded science and a divine blessing, deserving of great reward. He was known for his wide knowledge of soils, irrigation, and olive cultivation. The late 12th/early 13th-century agronomist, ibn al-‘Awwām, drew extensively from Abul-Khayr’s descriptions of digging wells and the instruments used for leveling land. He often cited his predecessors, especially his master ibn Baṣṣāl, al-Dīnawarī’s Kitāb al-Nabāt, and the works of Aristotle, ibn Waḥshīyya, Anatolius, Democritus, Fidas al-Fāsī, and Cassianus Bassus Scholasticus. In keeping with the practical nature of Andalusian agronomy, Abul-Khayr drew upon his personal experience, experiments, and observations in the gardens, fields, olive groves, and ramblas of his native Aljarafe, the hilly back-country to the west of Seville. He often noted, “We know this from our own experience,” attesting to the veracity of his teachings.

Al-Shajjar’s book is comprised of no less than 360 quarto pages written in the elegant Maghrebi script and is a genuine repository of agronomical knowledge from the Middle Ages. In addition to his own expertise, al-Shajjar has scoured the works of renowned authorities to bring forth a comprehensive treatise on all matters related to agriculture. From the delicate blooms of the rarest flowers to the sturdy boughs of the mightiest trees, from the cultivation of staple crops to the nurturing of luxury plants, the book covers every aspect of the science of cultivation.

With utmost precision and detail, al-Shajjar instructs farmers and gardeners on the principles of plant hygiene and pathology, offering remedies for the many diseases that afflict the vine and other crops. He expounds on the art of fertilization, providing guidance on the preparation of manures and the operations that precede and follow planting. He also delves into the specific requirements of each type of land, offering recommendations on the trees, grains, and vegetables that should be sown or planted.

In a section that will interest those who cultivate the plants of the Sahara, al-Shajjar expounds on the five techniques of grafting, detailing the Rūmi or Roman method, the Persian, the Nabataean, the Gothic, and the Greek methods. He also describes the tools necessary for the art of grafting, offering advice on the various grafts that are suitable for each species, and providing instruction on how to preserve grapes, figs, and olives.

In a chapter that is sure to stir the imagination, al-Shajjar also offers a multitude of curious instructions on how to impart various flavors and scents to fruits, and how to create designs and inscriptions on apples and pears. He even details how to obtain figs of different colors from the same tree.

The treatise concludes with a chapter on pruning, after which al-Shajjar offers a series of recipes for repelling and exterminating harmful creatures and insects. The book draws to a close with a final chapter on the care and management of livestock.

It is my sincerest hope that this recounting of al-Shajjar’s book shall serve to renew interest in this invaluable work and the many lessons it holds for those who seek to cultivate the land.

But alas, Abul-Khayr’s agronomical treatise has survived only in an incomplete form, preserved in three manuscripts.

Ibn al-Wafid

I am also honored to present the contributions of another learned and eminent scholar, Abū’l-Muṭarrif ibn Wāfid. This man, who was held in high esteem for his mastery of the arts and sciences, was a true polymath of his time. His works, which covered the fields of medicine, agriculture, and botany, have stood the test of time and continue to be studied to this day.

It was ibn Wāfid’s Materia Medica, a synthesis of the teachings of Dioscorides and Galen, that gained widespread recognition and was translated into Catalan, Hebrew, and Latin, showcasing the extent of his knowledge and wisdom. His Majmū‘ fīl-Filāḥa (Compendium of Agriculture) is considered to be a masterpiece.

Ibn Wafid’s contributions to the field of agriculture are not to be overlooked. A late 14th/early 15th-century copy of an earlier Castilian translation of his Majmū‘, attributed to Abel Mutariph Abel Nufit, was discovered and its authenticity as a work of ibn Wāfid was verified through references from ibn al-Abbār and ibn Luyūn. The former states in his Takmila that ibn Wāfid wrote a most intriguing compendium on agriculture, having mastered all aspects of the science and was responsible for planting the famous garden of the ruler Al-Ma’mūn in Toledo. The latter notes in the margin of his agricultural poem that ibn Wāfid wrote a Majmū‘ fīl-Filāḥa.

In the Huerta del Rey or Bustān al-Nā‘ūra (Garden of the Water-Wheel), one of the earliest botanical gardens in Europe, ibn Wafid acclimatized exotic plants brought from the Middle and Far East and conducted agricultural and botanical experiments that continue to be studied to this day. His students in Toledo, the botanist-physician ibn al-Lūnquh and the agronomist ibn Baṣṣāl went on to become masters in their own right and passed on their knowledge and skills to the next generation of botanists and agronomists including ibn Ḥajjāj, Abū ’l-Khayr, and Al-Ṭighnarī, ensuring the legacy of ibn Wāfid lived on.

Ibn Luyun

Abū ‘Uthmān Sa‘d ibn Abī Ja‘far Aḥmad ibn Ibrāhīm ibn Luyūn al-Tujībī, also known as ibn Luyun, was also another figure of unparalleled distinction in the fields of asceticism, philosophy, jurisprudence, mathematics, and poetry. Born in the year 681 A.H./ 1282 CE in the city of Almería, he was a man of extensive learning and had acquired knowledge from numerous prominent scholars, as evident from his possession of ijāzas or authorizations to teach from masters of both Fez and Egypt.

As recorded by Al-Maqqarī, the prolific pen of ibn Luyūn produced nearly one hundred works, each showcasing his remarkable intellect and mastery of various disciplines. One such work, his Kitāb Ibdā’ al-Malāḥa wa-Inhāa’ al-Rajāḥa fī Uṣūl Sinā‘at al-Filāḥa (Book on the Principles of Beauty and the Purpose of Learning, Concerning the Fundamentals of the Art of Agriculture), also known as Urjūza fīl-Filāḥa (Poem on Agriculture), holds a special place in the histories of Andalusian agricultural literature. Composed in the year 1348, it was the last known agricultural work from that era and one of the few that has survived to this day in a more or less complete form.

The Urjūza fīl-Filāḥa is a didactic poem of 1365 couplets, composed in the easy rajaz meter, that covers a broad range of agricultural and horticultural topics. The author has drawn extensively from the works of the great agriculturalists of the past, such as ibn Baṣṣāl and Al-Ṭighnarī, to produce a comprehensive treatise that is both educational and aesthetically pleasing. This rhyming work beautifully showcases the intellectual achievements of the Andalusian people and as a source of inspiration for all those who seek to increase their knowledge in the field of agriculture.

In the opening passages of the Urjūza fīl-Filāḥa, ibn Luyūn declares his intent to make the study of agriculture easier through the medium of poetry. True to his word, he approaches the subject with committed objectivity, abstaining from any form of poetic flourish. While he wasn’t rated as the best poet of his time, he still masterfully organized his work around the core elements of agriculture — land, water, manures, and the various agricultural and horticultural techniques. Ibn Luyun acknowledges regional variations in farming practices and highlights the importance of evaluating the quality of the land through its taste and smell. In a remarkable feat of knowledge and insight, he delves into the workings of water harvesting through underground qanāts and the use of sheep dung and other organic waste as fertilizers.

The Urjūza fīl-Filāḥa is also noteworthy for its emphasis on horticultural skills, with ibn Luyūn dedicating a considerable amount of attention to the propagation of crops and plants. He classifies these according to their means of propagation, providing detailed instructions on the use of softwood and hardwood cuttings, layering, grafting, seeds, bulbs, stolons, and transplanted roots.

In line with the tradition of Andalusi agronomists, ibn Luyūn includes instructions on the preservation and preparation of foodstuffs such as raisins, vinegar, capers, mustard, pickled fish, and olives, as well as methods to improve oil when it has spoiled. The final sections of his work are particularly unique, offering advice on the placement of houses, pavilions, wells, and large trees within a large country garden, making it an invaluable resource for the study of garden history.

Al-Nabati

Next on the list, we must also remember the name of the one and only Abu al-Abbas al-Nabati, also known as ibn al-Rumiya or al-Ashshab, who shall forever be remembered as one of the greatest luminaries of science and theology in the Andalusian realm. Born in the year 1166 CE in the city of Seville, al-Nabati was the descendant of freed slaves and of Byzantine Greek ethnicity, a fact which was said to cause him a measure of embarrassment and was reflected in his nickname, Ibn al-Rumiyah (son of the Roman woman).

However, it was his unmatched achievements in the fields of botany, pharmacology, and materia medica that would eventually earn him a place in the hearts and minds of scholars and scientists across the Islamic world. Al-Nabati was a true pioneer, introducing the experimental scientific method to the study of medicine and separating verified and unverified reports, thereby laying the foundations for the development of pharmacology as a discipline.

During his lifetime, al-Nabati traveled far and wide in pursuit of knowledge, visiting North Africa, the Levant, and Iraq, and spending a period of time in the city of Alexandria in 1216. Upon his return to Seville, he opened a pharmacy and continued his scholarly pursuits, eventually becoming a teacher to fellow Andalusian botanist, ibn al-Baitar.

In addition to his scientific achievements, al-Nabati was also a devout theologian, initially following the Maliki school of Sunni Islam before switching to the Zahirite school and becoming a zealous adherent of the teachings of ibn Hazm. He was the author of the famous work Botanical Journey, an early book on plant and herb species which he based on his observations around the world. Furthermore, he wrote a comprehensive commentary on the book of Pedanius Dioscorides, entitled Materia Medica, which sought to bring together the work of both Dioscorides and ibn Juljul, as well as preceding traditions and al-Nabati’s own original contributions to the study of plants in the Iberian peninsula.

Verily, al-Nabati’s contributions to his fields of expertise are nothing short of marvelous.

Ibn Juljul

Last, but certainly not least, it is with utmost admiration that I also write of the shining figure of Abu Dawud Sulayman ibn Hassan ibn Juljul, a learned physician and pharmacologist of Andalusian Arab descent. Born in the year 944 CE in Córdoba, he made remarkable contributions to the field of medicine, leaving a lasting impact on the scholars of Al-Andalus in the 10th and 11th centuries.

Ibn Juljul began his studies in medicine at the young age of fourteen, apprenticing under the renowned physician Hasdai ibn Kaprut. His tireless efforts were soon rewarded, as he rose to become the personal physician of Caliph Hisham II, and went on to impart his knowledge to a new generation of scholars as a teacher of medicine. Among his disciples was the renowned ibn al-Baghunish of Toledo.

The most notable of his works is the book Ṭabaqāt al-Aṭibbāa’ wal-Hukamāa’ (Generations of Physicians and Wise Men). This book, considered to be the second oldest collection of biographies of physicians written in Arabic, contains valuable information on the history of medicine, drawing from both Eastern and Western sources. The 57 biographies of famous Greek, Islamic, African, and Spanish physicians and philosophers that it includes provide a fascinating glimpse into the lives of these learned men, and offer a unique perspective on the science of medicine in the 10th century Cordoba.

Ibn Juljul also wrote several treatises and letters on pharmacology and was a prolific translator and commentator of the works of Dioscorides. In his Ṭabaqāt, he expounds on his thoughts on the decline of science in the Eastern Islamic provinces, attributing it to the apathy of the Daylamites and the Turks toward knowledge and learning. He famously stated:

“The Abbasid empire was weakened by the power of the Daylamites and Turks, who were not concerned with science: scholars appear only in states whose kings seek knowledge.”

Other Agricultural Greats

It is with great honor that I pen this testament to the legacy of other great agricultural authors from around the Muslim world, and not only from Al-Andalus, who have contributed immeasurably to the advancement of our knowledge in the field of agronomy.

To begin, there is ibn Waḥshīya, a scholar whose knowledge of agronomy was immeasurable to the point that he was sought after by rulers and nobles alike for his counsel. Then there is the brilliant ‘Arīb ibn Sa‘d, whose writings on the subject still inspire great admiration among those who study them.

Likewise, al-Nahrāwī, also known as Al-Zahrāwī, was a master of the subject, his work being regarded as a foundation of agricultural knowledge for generations to come. The same could be said of ibn Mammātī, al-Waṭwāṭ, and al-Malik al-Ashraf, all of whom have left a lasting legacy in the field of Islamic agronomy.

Other greats include the likes of ibn al-Bannā’, al-Dimashqī, al-Malik al-Afḍal, al-Tamār-Tamurī, al-Ghazzī al-‘Āmirī, Kibrīt al-Ḥusaynī, al-Nābulusī, ibn Kannān, Khayr al-Dīn ibn Ilyās, and Al-Khalāṣī, each of whom made invaluable contributions to our understanding of the cultivation and care of crops.

These names exemplified the glory of Islamic civilization and its boundless achievements. It is my hope that in recounting these great figures and their works, I have done my small part in safeguarding their legacy.

Legacy of Al-Andalus

It is important to note that such great achievements are only possible in a society that nurtures and supports them. Without knowledge-seeking rulers, as we see in today’s world, ignorance prevails, and in doing so, righteousness fades. Al-Andalus, however, was blessed with rulers who valued knowledge, learning, and culture and paved the way for education to find its way to anyone who seeks it.

These enlightened rulers included Muhammad al-Mu’tamid, the Emir of the Taifa of Seville, who was a patron of both poetry and liberalism; Caliph Abu Yaqub Yusuf, also of Seville, whose love of philosophy and learning was unmatched, and who was a close friend of ibn Tufayl and ibn Rushd; Caliph al-Hakim II of Granada, who was himself a scientist of great repute and possessed a library of 600,000 books; and the many other wise Emirs and Caliphs from throughout the entire history of Al-Andalus.

Moreover, in the domains of medicine and healthcare, Al-Andalus was well-known for its chain of hospitals, demonstrating its commitment to public health and the well-being of its people. Cordoba alone was home to more than 50 hospitals and 900 public baths, offering medical care and treatment to those in need. These institutions played an important role in the education of medical practitioners and were comparable to the modern teaching hospitals of our time. Some additional fun facts regarding Cordoba: there were also more than 1 million permanent residents, 60 palaces, 600 mosques, 17 universities, and 70 public libraries. Truly fascinating.

The legacy of Al-Andalus was also preserved and honored by King Alfonso the Wise of Castilla, who is sometimes considered the last king of Western Al-Andalus due to his deep respect for the cultural heritage of Muslim Iberia. In today’s troubled times, King Alfonso is the shining example of the kind of multiculturalism that Europe so desperately needs to rid itself of xenophobia and bigotry.

All images were sourced from Google Images.