Conquerors

Warning: One or more images in this article contain illustrated scenes of violence from the early 16th century.

Firstly, the Spanish Conquistadors were a group of soldiers, explorers, and adventurers who sailed from Europe to the Americas in the late 15th and early 16th centuries. Their goal was to claim land and resources for the Spanish Empire and to spread Catholicism to the indigenous peoples of the Americas. Some of the most famous Conquistadors were Hernán Cortés, Francisco Pizarro, and Pedro de Alvarado.

The conquest of the Americas by the Spanish began with Christopher Columbus’s voyage to the Caribbean in 1492. However, it was not until the arrival of Hernán Cortés less than three decades later that the conquest of the Aztec Empire truly began. Cortés was an ambitious and resourceful man who, despite being an outsider to the Aztec society, was able to gain the trust of the Aztec ruler Moctezuma. He then used this trust to launch a surprise attack on the Aztecs, capturing Moctezuma and using him as a puppet ruler.

Part I: Tales of Conquests

Hernán Cortés led an expedition to Mexico in 1519, where he encountered the powerful Aztec empire. Despite being outnumbered and outmatched, Cortés and his men were able to defeat the Aztecs and claim Mexico for Spain. One of the keys to their success was the alliances they formed with indigenous groups who were also hostile to the Aztecs. Cortés also employed a tactic of psychological warfare, such as the burning of his own ships upon arrival to show the Aztecs he was there to stay, and with no plan to return home.

The Aztecs, being vastly outnumbered and outgunned by the conquistadors, were quickly defeated and the empire was brought under Spanish control. This was a significant achievement for the conquistadors, as the Aztecs were one of the most powerful and advanced civilizations in the Americas at the time.

Francisco Pizarro led a similar expedition to Peru in 1532, where he encountered the Inca empire. Like Cortés, Pizarro and his men were able to defeat the Incas and claim Peru for Spain. However, Pizarro’s conquest of the Incas was much more violent than Cortés’ conquest of the Aztecs. Pizarro had a much smaller force than the Inca and relied on surprise and quick strikes on the Inca leadership.

Pedro de Alvarado also played a major role in the Spanish conquest of the Americas. He led an expedition to present-day Guatemala in 1524 and later to Honduras and El Salvador. He was known for his brutal treatment of the indigenous peoples he encountered, and for his role in the destruction of the Mayan civilization.

The Conquerors

The Spanish Conquistadors were motivated by a variety of factors. Some were seeking wealth and power, while others were driven by religious fervor. Many were also motivated by a desire for adventure and the thrill of exploration.

The Conquistadors were not alone in their voyages; they were accompanied by soldiers, sailors, priests, craftsmen, and even women. The soldiers themselves were known as “Conquistadors” or “discoverers,” and they were responsible for the military side of the expedition and conquest. The sailors were responsible for the navigation and the care of the ships, the priests were responsible for the spiritual well-being of the expedition, and the craftsmen were responsible for the maintenance of the equipment.

The Conquistadors were not just interested in conquering the native peoples, but also in making sure the resources of the New World flowed back to the Spanish Crown. They established colonies throughout the Americas, founded cities, and built churches and government buildings. They brought with them the Catholic religion and forced conversion on the native population. They also enslaved many of the native people, forcing them to work on plantations and mines.

The arrival of the Spanish in the Americas had a tremendous and lasting impact on the indigenous peoples they encountered. It is said that many indigenous cultures were decimated by the diseases brought by the Europeans, such as smallpox and influenza; however, many historians label this as a myth to whitewash the fact that the indigenous peoples of the Americas were ethnically cleansed.

Furthermore, the introduction of Catholicism also led to the suppression of traditional religious practices and the destruction of many ancient artifacts and temples. Additionally, the Spanish established new institutions such as encomiendas, which granted the Conquistadors and their men the right to extract labor from the indigenous people and forced them into a labor system.

The Spanish conquest of the Americas was a complex and controversial period in history. On one hand, the Conquistadors and their men accomplished incredible feats of exploration and colonization. On the other hand, the conquests brought about the deaths of millions of indigenous peoples, the destruction of ancient cultures, and the forced displacement of entire populations. The impact of the Conquistadors continues to be felt to this day, and their legacy is a subject of ongoing debate and study. Many of the conquered peoples were forced to adopt Spanish customs and practices, and their traditional way of life was forever changed.

The descendants of the Conquistadors and the native peoples continue to live side-by-side, and the culture and language of the Spanish colonizers have had a lasting impact on the region. Additionally, the conquest set the stage for further European colonization of the Americas and ultimately the creation of the modern nation-states of Latin America. Within a century or so, British, French, Dutch, and other Europeans would found colonies in this so-called New World.

Conquistadors: A Deeper Look

The Spanish conquistadors were well-equipped and well-trained soldiers who were prepared for the challenges of exploring and conquering the New World.

In terms of clothing, the conquistadors typically wore a combination of armor and traditional Spanish clothing. They would often wear a suit of plate armor, which protected them against the weapons of their native opponents. They also wore a type of garment called a brigandine, which was made of steel plates that were sewn into a jacket or doublet. They also wore a sallet helmet, which protected the head and had a visor that could be closed for added protection.

In terms of weapons, the conquistadors were well-armed. They were armed with swords, which were typically used for close combat. They also had crossbows, which were useful for ranged combat. Some of them also had arquebuses, which are early forms of firearms. The conquistadors also had a variety of tools and equipment that they used for different purposes, such as tools for building, tools for mining, and tools for hunting.

In terms of tactics, the conquistadors employed a variety of strategies in their battles with native peoples. They would often use a combination of surprise attacks, siege warfare, and psychological warfare to defeat their opponents. They were also skilled at adapting their tactics to the unique challenges of each battle and campaign. They would, for example, try to divide and conquer native groups by playing them against each other or make allies with certain groups to gain an advantage. They also were efficient in utilizing their superior weapons technology, for example, arquebuses, in battles against native armies who fought with swords or spears.

The conquistadors were also skilled at building forts and fortifications, which were important for protecting themselves and their supplies from attack. They were also known to use horses in battle, which was a significant advantage as the native peoples did not have domesticated animals that could be ridden into battle.

Due to the Spanish conquistadors being greatly outnumbered by the native populations they encountered, their success in battle relied heavily on the strategies they employed.

El Becerrillo

Becerrillo, or Bezerrillo (meaning “Little Bull Calf”), was the name of a Castilian attack dog during the Spanish conquistador’s times. Dogs were an important part of the Spanish conquistadors’ expeditions. They were used for a variety of purposes, including hunting, as well as for protection and companionship. Some of the most common breeds that were used by the conquistadors were greyhounds and Mastiffs. These breeds were valued for their speed, strength, and ability to take down large animals such as deer and wild boar.

During the conquest of the Americas, the conquistadors often used their dogs in battle against the native peoples. These dogs were trained to attack and kill humans and were equipped with armor to protect them from injury. They were also taught to locate and attack native warriors, making them an imposing and terrifying addition to the conquistadors’ forces.

In addition to their military uses, the dogs were also used to help the conquistadors track, locate, and capture native slaves. Once these hapless natives were tracked down, the dogs would then hold the captured people until the conquistadors arrived to take them into custody.

The use of dogs in battle was indeed brutal and devastating to the native populations. The dogs were often unleashed on native villages and towns, where they would kill and maim anyone in their path. The native peoples had never encountered such animals before and were often unable to defend themselves against the fierce attacks of the trained dogs.

It is also worth noting that in addition to the brutality of the conquest itself, the animals that were brought over from Europe, including the dogs, contributed to the decimation of the native populations through disease and overhunting of native animals.

The Brutality

There are many examples of the brutal methods used by the Spanish conquistadors during their conquest of the Americas. Here are a few anecdotes:

• Upon the Spanish arrival in the heart of the Aztec civilization, Tenochtitlán, initially perceived by the conquistadors as a marvel of human achievement, became the stage for one of the most dreadful episodes of the conquest. The city, celebrated for its architectural splendor and the vibrancy of its public markets and temples, quickly transformed into a battleground of cultural and military conquest. Cortés, leveraging the discontent among subject states of the Aztec Empire, forged alliances with local tribes, enhancing his military capabilities with their support. His approach was marked by a cunning use of diplomacy and psychological warfare, culminating in the capture of Moctezuma II, the Aztec emperor. This act of treachery, however, only served to escalate tensions, leading to a series of confrontations that would eventually see the Spanish forces driven from Tenochtitlán, albeit temporarily.
  The Aztec account of the massacre during the festival of Toxcatl reveals the extent of the horror that unfolded. The celebration turned into a massacre as the Spaniards, armed and ruthless, attacked the unarmed celebrants, leading to a slaughter so extensive that it was said the streets ran with blood. This act of violence was not an isolated incident but part of a broader strategy of terror and subjugation employed by the Spanish forces. Accounts describe how the Spanish, undeterred by the sanctity of the event or the unarmed status of the participants, unleashed a wave of violence, mutilating and killing indiscriminately​​.
• Francisco Pizarro’s campaign against the Inca Empire was marked by strategic cunning and the ruthless exploitation of the Inca’s internal discord. Upon arriving at the Inca Empire, Pizarro encountered a civilization already weakened by a devastating epidemic of European diseases and a bitter civil war between the two sons of the late Inca ruler, Wayna Qhapaq. Atahualpa, having emerged victorious from this conflict, was ill-prepared for the Spanish threat. Pizarro capitalized on these conditions, allying with certain indigenous factions discontented with Inca rule, thereby amplifying the empire’s internal divisions. His capture of Atahualpa, following a deceitful and bloody confrontation where thousands of Incas were slain with no Spanish losses, underscored the lethal combination of European military technology and divide-and-conquer tactics. Despite Atahualpa’s attempt to buy his freedom with a room filled with gold and silver, Pizarro executed him, a decisive act in the downfall of the Inca Empire. Pizarro’s subsequent capture of Cusco was facilitated by military might and by allying with local groups who were eager to overthrow Inca rule. His establishment of Lima further solidified Spanish control over the former Inca territories, though resistance continued from Inca holdouts like Manco Inca, who led a guerrilla war from the Vilcabamba Valley​.
• The method of “war by fire,” where conquistadors set ablaze indigenous villages and towns, is a documented tactic of psychological and physical warfare, intended to subjugate and terrify native populations. This approach not only resulted in the immediate loss of life but also devastated the ecological and social infrastructure of the native societies, undermining their ability to resist, recover, and sustain their communities in the face of Spanish aggression.
• Another fascinating anecdote involves the resistance against Spanish enslavement by the Mapuche people between 1598 and 1687. This resistance showcases the indigenous people’s resilience and determination to maintain their freedom and way of life in the face of European colonization efforts. The Mapuche’s struggle against Spanish attempts to enslave them underscores the complex dynamics of power, resistance, and survival that characterized the colonial encounter in the Americas​​.
• Álvar Núñez Cabeza de Vaca, born into Spanish nobility around 1490, ventured on the ill-fated Narváez expedition in 1527, aimed at conquering La Florida. This expedition, marred by disaster, saw Cabeza de Vaca and a few survivors endure hardships across the American Southwest for eight years, during which he became a trader and healer among Native American tribes.
• Alonso Alvarez de Piñeda, another notable figure, set off on a monumental expedition in 1519, charting the Gulf Coast from Florida to Mexico. His discovery that Florida was a peninsula, not an island as previously thought, and his encounters with the Mississippi River and its strong currents, contributed significantly to the European understanding of North American geography. Despite initial peaceful interactions, Alvarez’s attempt to establish a settlement was met with resistance from the Huasteca Indians, leading to a tragic end for him and his crew.

Part II: Imperio Español — Siglo de Oro

The successful conquests of the New World brought about humungous changes for the Spaniards back home; this period was referred to as the Spanish Golden Age (aka Siglo de Oro). This was a period of great prosperity and cultural achievement in Spain that lasted from Columbus’s discovery of the New World (late 15th century) to the early 17th century. It was a time when Spain was one of the most powerful and influential countries in the world, and its culture and arts flourished.

The Golden Age began in the reign of King Ferdinand and Queen Isabella, who were instrumental in the completion of the Reconquista (the conquest of Iberian territory from the Muslims), the funding of Christopher Columbus’s voyage to the New World, and the establishment of the Spanish Empire. During this period, Spain was experiencing an economic boom, thanks in part to the wealth that was flowing into the country from its colonies in the New World. This wealth, coupled with the political stability provided by the Habsburg dynasty, allowed for a flowering of art, literature, and intellectual thought.

One of the most notable cultural achievements of the Golden Age was literature. The period saw the emergence of some of Spain’s most celebrated writers and poets, including Miguel de Cervantes, Lope de Vega, and Francisco de Quevedo. Cervantes’ Don Quixote, published in two parts in 1605 and 1615, is widely considered to be one of the greatest works of fiction of all time. Spanish theater also flourished during this period, with plays by Lope de Vega and Pedro Calderon de la Barca becoming popular both in Spain and abroad.

The Golden Age also saw significant advancements in science and philosophy. The Spanish polymath Francisco de Vitoria is considered to be one of the founders of international law and Just War theory, while his contemporary Francisco Suarez is considered one of the founders of modern political philosophy.

In terms of art, the Golden Age saw the rise of the Spanish School of Painting, which produced some of the most celebrated artists of the period, such as Diego Velázquez and Francisco de Goya. Spanish Architecture also reached a great peak, with a unique blend of Mudéjar and Gothic styles, seen in many buildings of the time, including the Alcázar of Seville, the Monastery of San Juan de Los Reyes, and the Palace of Charles V in Granada.

Despite its achievements, the Spanish Golden Age came to an end in the early 17th century, due to many factors such as the decline of Spain’s economic and political power, as well as the outbreak of the Thirty Years War in Europe which brought devastation to Spain.

Competition

During the 16th and 17th centuries, Spain was not the only European country competing for control of the New World. Other European powers, such as England, France, and Portugal, also had imperial ambitions and were establishing colonies in the Americas. This competition led to several conflicts between these European powers, as they sought to expand their territorial holdings and control valuable resources such as gold, silver, and land.

One of the main areas of competition between Spain and other European powers was in present-day North America. The English established colonies in present-day Virginia and Massachusetts, while the French established colonies in present-day Quebec and Louisiana. These colonies often came into conflict with the Spanish colonies in Florida, Texas, and California, leading to a number of skirmishes and wars.

In South America, the Portuguese were also a major competitor to Spain. They established colonies in present-day Brazil, which competed with the Spanish colonies in present-day Argentina, Uruguay, and Chile for control of the region’s resources.

In the Caribbean, both England and France established colonies on islands such as Jamaica and Haiti. These colonies were often in competition with the Spanish colonies in present-day Cuba, Puerto Rico, and the Dominican Republic, leading to many naval conflicts.

In addition to direct competition with other European powers, the Spanish also had to contend with the native peoples of the Americas, many of whom resisted the European colonization of their lands.

Noteworthy Tales & Anecdotes

• In 1588, the Spanish Armada, a powerful fleet of ships sent by King Philip II of Spain, was defeated by the English navy in a decisive battle. This was a significant setback for the Spanish Empire, as it had been attempting to invade England and establish control over the English Channel. It also marked the decline of Spanish naval power, which made it harder for the empire to maintain control over its overseas territories. The Spanish Armada of 1588, nonetheless, was a significant event in European history. It’s important to also mention that The Spanish Armada campaign of 1588 was one of the most significant naval conflicts of the 16th century, it was a major effort by King Philip II of Spain to invade England, but despite its size and power, the armada was defeated by the English navy in a series of engagements, which marked the decline of Spanish naval power and the rise of English naval power in the following years.
• Moving on to another anecdote, In the late 17th century, the Dutch established a colony in present-day Guyana, which was in direct competition with the Spanish colony of Venezuela. The two colonies engaged in a number of conflicts, with the Dutch attempting to gain control of the Orinoco River, which was a major trade route for the Spanish. In 1654, a Dutch force led by Commander Adriaen Heermans and Joost van der Goes was sent to capture the Spanish fort of Essequibo located at the mouth of the Essequibo River, which was the main Spanish stronghold in the region.
  The Dutch, who had a much smaller force, used a clever ruse to take the fort. They pretended to be a group of shipwrecked sailors seeking refuge and once inside the fort, they overwhelmed the Spanish garrison and took the fort without firing a shot. This event was a major victory for the Dutch, as it allowed them to control the strategic location and trade route of the Essequibo River and access to the interior of the region, where the Dutch established a profitable trade in tobacco and other goods. This led to the Treaty of Munster in 1648, which saw the Dutch ceding control of the region to the Spanish, putting an end to the Dutch colonization of Guyana.
• The English established colonies in present-day Virginia and Massachusetts, which competed with the Spanish colonies in the Caribbean, such as Cuba and Puerto Rico. An example of this competition was the Anglo-Spanish War, which was fought primarily in the Caribbean and saw the English privateers raiding Spanish ships and colonies, and the Spanish responding with naval attacks on English colonies and ports. On a general note, the Anglo-Spanish War was a series of conflicts fought between England and Spain in the 16th and 17th centuries, primarily in the Caribbean and the Americas.
  During the 1590s, English pirate Francis Drake led several daring raids against Spanish ships and colonies in the Caribbean. In 1595, Drake and his fleet of ships set out on a raid to sack the Spanish city of San Juan de Puerto Rico. The English ships sailed into the port, and Drake and his men disembarked and took the city by surprise. The Spanish were caught off guard and were unable to mount an effective defense. The English proceeded to loot the city, taking a large amount of treasure, and captured the governor of the city. They then set the city on fire and sailed away. The destruction of San Juan de Puerto Rico was a significant blow to the Spanish, who were already struggling to maintain control of their colonies in the Caribbean. It was also a major victory for the English, who had demonstrated their ability to attack and raid Spanish colonies with impunity.
• Before all those events, one example of a fearsome battle (in favor of the Spaniards) during the Spanish Golden Age was the Battle of Cajamarca, fought in 1532. Though we did make mention of this event in the earlier anecdotal section of the article, here, we’ll be focusing on the Battle of Cajamarca itself. This battle took place in present-day Peru and was fought between the Spanish conquistadors, led by Francisco Pizarro, and the Inca Empire, led by the emperor Atahualpa. Pizarro and his men had arrived in present-day Peru in 1531, looking to conquer the Inca Empire and take control of its massive wealth in gold and silver. They quickly established a friendly relationship with Atahualpa, who was at the time in the midst of a civil war against his brother Huascar. Pizarro and his men convinced Atahualpa to meet with them in the city of Cajamarca, under the guise of a peaceful meeting, promising to provide him with military aid.
  Atahualpa, along with a large retinue of warriors, arrived in Cajamarca and was greeted by Pizarro and his men. However, instead of providing aid as promised, Pizarro ambushed Atahualpa and his warriors, trapping them in the city’s main square. The Inca warriors, who were greatly outnumbered by the Spanish, were quickly overwhelmed by Pizarro’s men, who were armed with guns and horses. Atahualpa, who was captured by the Spanish, offered to fill a room with gold and twice as much silver, in exchange for his release, but Pizarro did not keep his promise. The emperor was held captive for months, and despite his ransom, was eventually put on trial for treason, and sentenced to death by strangulation.
  The Battle of Cajamarca was a major victory for the Spanish and marked the beginning of the end of the Inca Empire. The Incas, who were taken by surprise by the advanced weapons of the conquistadors, were unable to mount a successful defense against the invaders. Pizarro and his men were able to take control of the Inca capital of Cusco, and the empire began to unravel. The Inca Empire never fully recovered from the loss of their emperor, and the empire fell under Spanish rule within a decade.
• Last, but not least, another notable victory for Spain was the Battle of Lepanto which was fought between the Holy League, a coalition of Catholic powers led by Spain, and the Ottoman Empire, which dominated the entire Mediterranean Sea at the time. The Holy League had assembled a large fleet of ships, commanded by Don Juan of Austria, the illegitimate half-brother of King Philip II of Spain. The two fleets met in the Gulf of Patras, off the western coast of Greece, in what was one of the largest naval battles of the 16th century. The Ottomans, who were outnumbered and outgunned, put up fierce resistance, but ultimately, the Holy League emerged victorious. The Ottoman fleet was effectively destroyed, with most of its ships being captured or sunk, and thousands of Ottoman soldiers were taken as prisoners.
  The Battle of Lepanto was a major victory for the Holy League and marked a turning point in the struggle against Ottoman expansion in Europe. The Ottoman Empire, which had been the dominant naval power in the Mediterranean, was dealt a severe blow temporarily, and the Holy League was able to gain control of the Mediterranean and secure the passage of trade and pilgrims, in the following years. The Ottomans, however, recouped their losses in a short amount of time and had an even bigger naval power not so long after.

Spain’s Aftermath

After the Spanish Golden Age, which lasted from the late 15th century to the early 17th century, Spain’s power and influence began to decline. This decline can be attributed to a number of factors, including:

• Financial: The cost of maintaining and defending a global empire, as well as the cost of several wars, put a strain on Spain’s finances. Spain had financed its empire through the extraction of large amounts of gold and silver from the New World, but as those resources began to dry up, the country’s economy struggled. Additionally, Spain was heavily in debt to other European powers, such as Genoa and Amsterdam, making it difficult to maintain its global empire.
• Military: Spain’s military was stretched thin, trying to maintain control of its far-flung empire. Additionally, other European powers, such as England and France, were quickly catching up with Spain in terms of military technology and tactics, making it more difficult for Spain to maintain its military dominance.
• Political: Spain was ruled by a Habsburg dynasty, which was faced with several succession crises throughout the 17th century. These crises led to long periods of regency, where the country was ruled by regents rather than a strong monarch, which made it difficult to govern effectively.
• Demographic: Spain’s population began to decline in the 17th century, due to a combination of factors such as war, disease, and economic instability. This made it harder for the country to maintain its empire, as it didn’t have the necessary population to colonize and administer its territories.
• Intellectual: With the decline of the Spanish empire, the dominant position of Spain in Europe was lost. Spanish art, science, and literature lost the previous relevance they had during the Golden Age, and other European countries began to take the lead in these fields.

All of these factors combined led to Spain losing its dominant position in Europe and the world. Spain would continue to be a major European power but it would never recover the same level of influence and prestige it held during its Golden Age.

Note: All images were taken from Google Images.