Beyond Conquest: Empire of Harmony

Known for its lavishness and calm, the Mughal Empire splendidly mirrors the magnificence of past civilizations. Contrary to the prejudiced narratives perpetuated by the voices of the ignorant, modern age, the Mughals did not plunder India; instead, they nurtured its prosperity, endowing its people with unimaginable wealth. Pause for a moment and reflect: who sows the seeds of discord and benefits from societal divisions? None other than the deplorable colonizer. “You there, yes, you! Engage in conflict, and in your self-destruction, and then I shall reap the spoils of your nation!” For what other purpose does a colonizer exist, if not to govern a land and its inhabitants, predominantly and solely for the economic gains of their own kind?

However, the Mughals, unlike mere colonizers, materialized in India as conquerors yet embraced the country as their own. They assimilated themselves and their identity into the rich Indian culture, forging an inseparable bond with their adopted land. This fusion birthed an enduring legacy of history and heritage. For centuries, the notion of the Mughals being foreign was never a point of contention, so seamlessly had they integrated into the fabric of their newfound home. Alas, in recent years, fueled by the bigotry and idiocy of modern politicians, the concept of foreignness has been thrust into the limelight. Hindrances in the form of so-called Hindu nationalism has, with disconcerting success, endeavored to expunge Mughal influences from the Indian public sphere. Their strategies include renaming iconic landmarks and imparting a saffron hue to Indian textbooks, all part of their mischievous plots.

Once, the Mughal Empire stood as a global hub of commerce and innovation, rivaling the might of Europe and the Ottoman Empire until, perhaps, the 1700s. Regrettably, the decline of the Mughal Empire paved the way for British colonization, plunging India into a century-long era of destitution from which it still strives to emerge. Shockingly, over 90% of the Indian population sank below the poverty line during this period.

In this article, however, we shall explore the many contributions of the Mughal Empire across multiple aspects. Before that, let us first dive into its rich historical backdrop, setting the stage for a comprehensive summary of its grandeur.

Part I: Beneath the Dust of Time — Background & Summary:

As early as 1000 CE, India held the mantle of the world’s largest economy, commanding a staggering 28.9% share of the global GDP. However, the subsequent centuries witnessed a stagnation in economic growth. It was only during the period between 1000 and 1500 CE that India experienced a resurgence, with the Mughal Empire presiding over its most notable era of prosperity. By the 18th century, India had surpassed China to claim the title of the world’s largest economy.

The prosperity of the region was strongly linked to its thriving textile trade, which had been a source of wealth since as far back as the 5th century BCE, during the Roman Empire. The demand for Indian cotton and silk fabrics attracted traders from distant lands, extending from China in the East to Persia in the West. Additionally, the spice trade emanating from Indonesia’s famed Spice Islands injected further vigor into commerce. While India did not cultivate many spices of its own, it served as the global hub for their trans-shipment. This flavorful wealth enticed explorers like Columbus, who set off on his renowned voyage in 1492, commissioned by the Spanish monarchs, in pursuit of easier access to these coveted commodities. By 1750, pepper had become a staple in nearly every household in London and Lisbon, as evinced by the ubiquity of pepper pots.

Now, turning our attention to the Mughal Empire, its genesis can be traced back to the victory of Babur over Ibrahim Lodi, the last Sultanate of Delhi, in the momentous Battle of Panipat in 1526. With this triumph, the Mughal dynasty emerged, supplanting the Delhi Sultanate’s dominion. The realm of the Mughals holds immense significance in the cultural development of pan India. The pivotal clash between Babur and the Rajput army of Sanga solidified the Mughal Empire’s foothold in northern India. Following this historic confrontation, the Mughal dynasty established Agra as its primary center, gradually shifting from Kabul. The reign of the Mughal dynasty from the 16th to the 18th century witnessed a flourishing of art forms and architectural styles, contributing significantly to India’s cultural landscape. The fusion of Iranian and Urdu languages within India owes its origins to the Mughal kingdoms.

While the Mughals were Muslims, their dominion comprised a predominantly Hindu population. Seeking to foster loyalty, Emperor Akbar (the Great), the son of Humayun, forged a syncretic religion that amalgamated elements of Islam and other faiths. Under Akbar’s enlightened rule, the Mughal Empire expanded its influence to include the entire northern half of India, ushering in a golden age of prosperity. It is worth noting that Muslims were already present in India prior to the arrival of the Mughals, and throughout their reign, Muslims constituted only around 15% of the population. Yet, for the most part, Mughal governance exhibited tolerance toward the diverse religious communities of the region.

This policy of inclusivity nurtured social stability, paving the way for flourishing business, investment, and trade, which we will get into shortly. The Mughals leveraged India’s abundant resources, bolstered its production capacity, and promoted a thriving trade network dominated by Muslims in the Indian Ocean. India stood at the epicenter of a global market, wherein Muslims, hailing from diverse backgrounds and regions, played a fundamental role as principal merchants. They benefited from a shared language (Arabic), a common set of ethical codes, and a shared tradition of commercial practices.

However, it was during the reign of Emperor Aurangzeb, the great-grandson of Akbar, that the grand Mughal Empire witnessed a momentous and transformative shift. Ascending to the throne in 1658, Aurangzeb’s tenure initiated a remarkable era defined by upheaval and unrest. Firmly rooted in his firm commitment to orthodox Islam, the emperor’s policies inadvertently caused a rift between the Hindu majority population and the Mughal establishment, thus sowing the seeds of widespread discontent and rebellion against the ruling regime. As the 18th century dawned, the Mughals found themselves in a state of decline, their once-mighty authority crumbling like the fading vestiges of a bygone era. The nadir of this decline arrived with utmost poignancy as Aurangzeb himself, a figure of immense power, was captured and subsequently executed in 1719. The ensuing years cast a mournful shadow over Delhi, the vibrant capital city that had once thrived under the Mughal banner, as it fell prey to the ravages of plunder and desolation in the year 1739.

Amid these tragic developments, the British East India Company, driven by its insatiable pursuit of profit, became increasingly entangled in the affairs of India. Initially welcomed by the Mughals in hopes of forging an alliance, the company-turned-empire showed its true nature as it resorted to force, expanding its dominion through conquest and exploiting the region’s resources in an exploitative manner. The policies implemented by the East India Company likely exacerbated devastating famines, further exacerbating the plight of the Indian population. Notably, the company, as well as subsequent British imperial governors, suppressed the Indian cotton manufacturing industry, which held the potential to pave the way for a genuine industrial revolution in India.

It is worth mentioning that during Mughal rule, its Muslim rulers formed matrimonial alliances with Indian rulers, particularly the Rajputs. This resulted in the Rajputs holding influential positions in the Mughal army, with the Kachhwaha Rajput of Amber often occupying the highest military posts. This sense of identification with the Mughal rulers played a crucial role in the events of 1857 when Indian sepoys rallied behind the aged Mughal Emperor Bahadur Shah Zafar during the first war of Indian Independence. They crowned him as the emperor of Hindustan and fought under his banner, demonstrating their loyalty and unity.

All in all, the Mughal Empire’s ancient history is exemplified by six notable rulers. The founder, Babur, dedicated much of his youth to acquiring the capital of the Timurid Empire. Humayun, Babur’s eldest son, initially lost the kingdom to the Afghan soldier Sher Shah but later recaptured Lahore, Agra, and Delhi. Akbar, an illustrious ruler, expanded the Mughal Empire, extending its reach into Punjab and Delhi. Jahangir inherited a prosperous and culturally diverse kingdom. Shah Jahan, renowned for his architectural masterpiece, the Taj Mahal, expanded Mughal territories into the Deccan states. Finally, Aurangzeb, regarded as one of the empire’s greatest administrators and leaders, also earned notoriety for the fratricide committed against his elder brothers and his father, Shah Jahan.

Part II: Whispers in the Halls — Mughal Contributions:

• Economy

During the glorious reign of the Mughal Empire, a serene and orderly living environment prevailed, providing the essential foundation for manufacturing to flourish. With law and order firmly established and regional trade barriers removed, markets impeccably integrated, furthering economic prosperity. From the words of the French traveler Francois Bernier, who visited India in the 17th century, it became evident that “gold and silver come from every quarter of the globe to Hindustan.” This unmatched prosperity was a direct result of the Mughals’ emphasis on trade and their remarkable investments in infrastructure.

Indian handicrafts thrived, and export trade in goods such as cotton cloth, spices, indigo, woolen and silk cloth, and salt sprung up. Indian merchants, with their astute business acumen, conducted trade on their own terms, accepting only bullion as payment. The Mughal Empire witnessed remarkable advancements in various industries, surpassing the offerings of any other nation during the Sultanate period. Shipbuilding, textiles, steel production, and diamond cutting were among the fields in which Indian craftsmanship outshone the world.

Amidst their pursuit of wealth, the Mughals’ approach to acquisition was non-exploitative, as they directed their resources towards the development of robust infrastructure and the creation of magnificent monuments. These architectural masterpieces, standing tall even in our present day, continue to enrich the cultural fabric of India and captivate both locals and tourists. The marvelous Taj Mahal, for instance, commissioned by the visionary Shah Jahan, generates annual revenue exceeding a sum of Rs 21 crore (210 million USD) through ticket sales alone, as attested by the Ministry of Culture in Lok Sabha. The Qutub Complex, another Mughal marvel, contributes over Rs 10 crore (100 million USD) through ticket sales. Similarly, the Red Fort and Humayun’s Tomb, each generate an impressive revenue of approximately Rs 6 crore (60 million USD).

Furthermore, under Mughal rule, urbanization experienced unprecedented growth, with thriving towns and cities attracting the elite and nobility known for their opulent lifestyles and extravagant consumption. These developments exerted an even stronger influence on Indian manufacturing, making it a defining aspect of the Mughal Empire. Monetization of the economy became a notable hallmark of Mughal rule, replacing traditional modes of exchange with market-mediated transactions, giving rise to a new class of traders and merchants. This transformation laid the groundwork for a dynamic and adaptable manufacturing industry that thrived throughout the empire.

Craftsmanship, once intertwined with agriculture and perpetuating a social division of labor along caste lines, experienced a decline under the empire’s manufacturing-friendly policies. The introduction of cash-based land revenue collection prompted artisans to migrate to growing urban areas, where they could freely pursue their vocations. Artisans fully embraced their roles in producing goods for long-distance and medium-distance trade, disentangling themselves from the traditional system. This newfound mobility enhanced their availability and participation in flexible manufacturing.

The integration of fragmented markets and the removal of trade barriers expanded the market size, catalyzing a dynamic economic system. The Mughal state played a vital role in this process, with effective patronage and monitoring facilitated by its efficient administrative machinery. The empire’s economic principle of extracting surplus from agriculture to sustain its vast army necessitated the flourishing of economic activity.

Moreover, the development of an extensive network of roads played a crucial role in economic growth and the expansion of manufacturing. The renowned Grand Trunk Road, alongside other routes connecting various regions, facilitated flawless market connectivity. This network extended to cities such as Cambay, Surat, Ahmedabad, and Multan, enabling the movement of goods across the empire.

With impressive infrastructure, monetization of the economy, an expanding market, and extensive trading, the manufacturing landscape of the Mughal Empire reached unprecedented heights. Regionally-based trading communities, comprising merchants, traders, and moneylenders, established artisan workshops, nurturing traditional flexible manufacturing. Over time, these communities evolved into entrepreneurial leaders driving the nascent modern manufacturing processes.

Administration

Underpinning the empire’s wealth was an efficient and expansive governmental structure. The Mughal rulers devised a sophisticated bureaucracy where both Hindu rajas and Muslim sultans assumed the role of mansabdars, entrusted officers of the state responsible for land grants. These distinguished leaders, proficient in military and civil affairs, commanded well-equipped cavalry units and diligently collected taxes for the empire. In return for their services, they received land rights, remuneration, and elevated social status.

The position of mansabdars bore similarities to European nobility, yet possessed distinct characteristics. Unlike their European counterparts, noble titles in the Mughal system were not hereditary and could be bestowed or revoked at the emperor’s discretion. Furthermore, mansabdars did not hold ownership of the land itself but rather had the privilege of tax collection. Consequently, their authority paled in comparison to the immense power wielded by the emperor, particularly in the early years of their service.

The Mughal Empire’s administrative practices left a lasting impact, not only shaping the governance system of subsequent rulers such as the Rajputs and Marathas but also influencing the British during their colonization. Akbar’s land revenue system, with some modifications, endured through the ages, serving as a foundation for contemporary administrative practices.

Moreover, the efficient administrative system established by Akbar fostered an environment conducive to commerce and trade, contributing to the empire’s prosperity. However, it was precisely this prosperous state of affairs that enticed the East India Company to seek trade concessions from the Mughal Empire, leading to its control and eventual destruction. The devastating drain of wealth from India commenced during the era of the East India Company, rather than under the Delhi Sultanate or earlier Mughal reigns. Countless Mughal paintings, jewels, and works of art fell victim to looting during and after the events of 1857, finding their way into the collections of bloodsucking Western museums and galleries, although some precious artifacts have been preserved in Indian museums as well.

Architecture

Shifting our focus to the sphere of architectural contributions, let us explore this enchanting domain further. The Mughal Empire’s influence surpassed mere tangible structures and monetary gains; it comprised a deep nurturing of the convergence between Indo-Islamic architecture, an exquisite fusion that flawlessly integrated the finest elements from both cultures. Moreover, the Mughals took immense pride in fostering the local arts and crafts, breathing new life into traditional skill sets while forging novel ones within the domain of Indian craftsmanship.

This patronage of the arts truly showcased the Mughal’s lasting legacy, establishing unparalleled standards of taste and perfection. The remarkable achievements in architecture, the exceptional skills of craftsmen in fields like textile creation and metalwork, and the fascinating domain of visual arts, including painting, positioned their efforts as guiding lights for many to emulate. India, through its steadfast commitment, garnered worldwide acclaim for its distinguished, handcrafted marvels of unmatched excellence — a legacy that endures today.

While appreciating the architectural marvels birthed during the Mughal era, it is vital to acknowledge that the underlying ideologies of Madrasas, centers of Islamic education, have tenaciously persevered. However, the construction techniques employed in these architectural masterpieces have gracefully evolved over time. Gifted individuals, nurtured by Madrasas, unleashed their exceptional talents to fashion breathtaking edifices that we are now poised to explore and admire.

The Mughals mastered the construction of magnificent forts, palaces, gates, public buildings, mosques, and baohs (water tanks or wells). They also bestowed great attention to the creation of formal gardens adorned with flowing water. This emphasis on running water was not limited to the grand palaces and pleasure retreats but permeated throughout their architectural endeavors. Even Babur, the founder of the Mughal Empire, held a deep affinity for gardens, resulting in the construction of several exquisite examples in the environs of Agra and Lahore. Remarkably, some of these Mughal gardens, including the Nishat Bagh in Kashmir, the Shalimar Bagh in Lahore, and the Pinjore Garden in Chandigarh, continue to enchant visitors to this day.

Sher Shah, although not belonging to the Mughal lineage, was also noted as a distinguished figure in Indian architecture during his contemporaneous era. His architectural prowess is splendidly showcased in his renowned mausoleum at Sasaram in Bihar, as well as the majestic mosque he constructed within the confines of Delhi’s old fort.

Yet, it was the legendary Akbar, with his abundant resources and ample time, who truly initiated an era of grand construction projects. His visionary initiatives encompassed the creation of forts beyond compare, with the Agra Fort earning exceptional renown. Crafted from the resplendent red sandstone, this formidable fortress featured a series of majestic gates. In 1572, Akbar set about on another ambitious undertaking, commencing the construction of a palace-comfort complex at Fatehpur Sikri, situated a mere 36 kilometers from Agra. Remarkably, this grand project was brought to fruition in a mere eight years.

Another notable marvel of this era is the Buland Darwaza, or the Lofty Gate, erected in 1576 at Fatehpur Sikri to commemorate Akbar’s victorious campaign in Gujarat.

However, the pinnacle of Mughal fortification was realized in Delhi under the watch of Shah Jahan, another remarkable Mughal emperor. It was here that the Lal Qila, famously known as the Red Fort, came to life. The architecture of the palace within the fort complex showcased a prevalent Gujarat style, possibly intended for the emperor’s Rajput wife or wives. Intriguing elements of Iranian and Central Asian influence manifested in the exquisite use of glazed blue tiles for wall decorations and roofing, further adding to the splendor of the palace.

Shah Jahan’s reign also witnessed the peak of mosque construction, showcased through two notable structures. The Moti Masjid, located within the Agra Fort, was constructed entirely of pristine marble similar to the mighty Taj Mahal. Additionally, the Jama Masjid in Delhi, crafted from striking red sandstone, charms the beholder’s gaze with its splendor. These architectural marvels continued the Mughal traditions, beautifully blending Hindu and Turko-Iranian architectural elements, and embellished with elaborate decorative designs. Their influence extended far beyond the borders of the Mughal Empire, carving their legacy on the palaces and forts of various regional kingdoms well into the eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries.

As Jahangir’s reign drew to a close, a distinctive architectural practice became common, characterized by the exquisite use of marble and the embellishment of walls with floral designs crafted from semi-precious stones. This refined technique, known as pietra dura, gained even greater prominence during the reign of Shah Jahan. It was under his patronage that the iconic masterpiece, the Taj Mahal, came into existence, exhibiting the Mughals’ architectural finesse pleasantly.

Humayun’s Tomb, constructed in Delhi during Akbar’s reign, is a magnificent precursor to the grandeur of the Taj Mahal, featuring an imposing marble dome. However, the true splendor of the Taj Mahal lies in its colossal dome and the graceful minarets that gracefully connect the platform to the main structure, highlighting the pinnacle of Mughal architectural mastery.

Even the Golden Temple, a spiritual sanctuary of the Sikhs located in Amritsar, Punjab, pays homage to the long-lasting legacy and impact of Mughal architectural traditions. Embracing the graceful aesthetics and design principles of the Mughals, this sacred site incorporates elements such as arches and domes, perpetuating their timeless pull.

Arts

In the sphere of art and paintings, the Mughals were fascinated by the exquisite craftsmanship of Iranian artists, paving the way for a breathtaking fusion of Indo-Iranian influences. The seeds of this artistic collaboration were delicately planted during the reign of the Turkish-Afghan Delhi Sultanate, blossoming into resplendent magnificence under the enlightened rule of Mughal Emperors such as Akbar, Jahangir, and Shah Jahan. As time passed, the art of Mughal painting underwent a glorious evolution, ascending to unmatched heights of realism and portraiture.

Within the domain of Mughal artistry, a myriad of novel themes were introduced, capturing the essence of the regal court, battlefields brimming with animated vigor, and exhilarating hunts. Mughal painters, with audacious flair, fearlessly experimented with a diverse array of colors and forms, infusing their creations with an enchanting vibrancy that bewitched the beholder.

Initially, the Mughal Era paintings drew inspiration from the fables of Iranian literature and Hindu mythology. Yet, as the sands of time cascaded forth, the focus shifted toward capturing the tangible world in all its resplendent splendor. The canvas came alive with majestic portraits of royalty, elaborate depictions of courtly affairs, vivid glimpses into the wilderness and the thrill of the hunt, as well as breathtaking illustrations of battles fought and triumphantly won.

No gaze can disregard the striking use of luminous colors that illuminate the canvas, a splendorous highlight to the resplendent glory of the era. The finesse of artistry displayed, accompanied by calligraphic text gracefully adorning the borders, heightens the allure of these masterpieces.

Humayun, enchanted by the world of Iranian miniature painting, recognized its extraordinary beauty and sought the expertise of accomplished Iranian artists, the renowned Sayyid Ali and Abdus Samad. One of Humayun’s own treasured commissions, the Khamsa of Nizami, reflects the brilliance and mastery exhibited across its 36 illuminated pages, each bearing the distinct style of various artists.

Akbar, inheriting not only Humayun’s library but also his court painters, devoted himself wholeheartedly to the expansion and elevation of the realm of Mughal painting. By personally overseeing its development, he propelled this artistic expression to dazzling new heights. Among the many resplendent artistic triumphs of his era, one finds the Tutinama (Tales of a Parrot), The Gulistan, The Khamsa of Nizami, Darab Nama, and depictions of the Hindu epics Ramayana and Mahabharata. Akbar’s patronage of numerous painters led to the widespread dissemination and magnificent evolution of the Mughal style of painting between the years 1570 and 1585.

Jahangir, blessed with an innate artistic inclination, became the harbinger of refinement in Mughal paintings by adopting the vibrant palette of oil paints. Inspired by the wonderful techniques of single-point perspective employed by European artists, his paintings immortalized real-life events and personal experiences. Within the pages of his autobiography, the illustrious Jahangirnama, one discovers a treasure trove of vividly illustrated anecdotes, forever preserving his extraordinary life and the vibrant era in which he thrived.

Under the reign of Shah Jahan, the flame of Mughal paintings continued to burn brightly, albeit with a renewed emphasis on refined and structured themes. The canvases of this era were graced with scenes of lovers locked in intimate embraces, joyous gatherings of mellifluous melodies, and other tender moments that mirrored the artistic sensibilities and prevailing passions of the time.

And in the sphere of music, Akbar’s patronage extended to Tansen, the legendary musician from Gwalior. Tansen is credited with composing numerous new melodies, known as ragas. Subsequent Mughal rulers such as Jahangir and Shah Jahan, along with many Mughal nobles, also cherished the importance of music. While some claim that Aurangzeb banished singing in his court, musical instrument performances continued to thrive. In fact, Aurangzeb himself was an accomplished veena player. Music in various forms continued to receive patronage from Aurangzeb’s queens and the nobility. As a result, numerous books on classical Indian music, written in Iranian, emerged during Aurangzeb’s reign, highlighting the enduring influence and appreciation of music during the Mughal era.

Literature

In the grand world of literature, the Mughal period witnessed a splendid blossoming of regional languages, nourished by the generous patronage of local and regional rulers. Iranian, Hindi, Bengali, and Punjabi literature thrived during this era, constructing literary traditions that left an enduring mark on the cultural landscape.

Under the enlightened reign of Akbar, the knowledge of Farsi language spread far and wide across northern India. This transformative shift stemmed from Akbar’s visionary decision to replace the use of local languages in revenue records with Iranian. The Deccani states of southern India also adopted a similar practice, which remained until their decline in the late seventeenth century.

During Akbar’s glorious reign, Iranian prose and poetry soared to unprecedented heights, elevating the written word to sublime realms. At the forefront of this literary renaissance stood Abu’l Fazl, a revered scholar and historian in Akbar’s court, whose exquisite prose set a standard that would resonate for generations to come. Faizi, Abu’l Fazl’s esteemed brother, became a preeminent poet of the era, his verses suffused with profound beauty. Faizi played an essential role in Akbar’s translation department and oversaw the translation of the epic Mahabharata.

Other notable Iranian poets, including Utbi and Naziri, migrated from Iran to India, enriching the Mughal court and transforming it into a cultural epicenter of the Islamic world. Notably, Hindu scholars also made significant contributions to Iranian literature, broadening its scope and depth. Beyond literary and historical works, this vibrant period also witnessed the compilation of several renowned Iranian dictionaries, solidifying the intellectual legacy of the time.

Meanwhile, regional languages embraced stability and maturity, giving rise to exquisite lyrical poetry that reverberated with timeless emotions. The romance of the idolatrized Krishna and Radha, the playful escapades of the young Krishna, and the teachings of the Bhagavad Gita found eloquent expression in lyrical poetry, which transcended linguistic boundaries and flourished in diverse regional languages such as Bengali, Oriya, Hindi, Rajasthani, and Gujarati.

Additionally, devotional hymns dedicated to the idolatrized Lord Rama were composed, and translations of the revered epics, the Ramayana and the Mahabharata, were disseminated widely in regional languages, including Farsi, spell-binding readers with their timeless tales, and bridging the worlds of Iranian and Hindu literature.

The patronage of the Mughal emperors and Hindu rulers extended to medieval Hindi, particularly in its Brij dialect, spoken in the vicinity of Agra. Within the court of Akbar, Hindi poets found their place, infusing the literary landscape with their vibrant expressions and lyrical prowess.

One of the prominent figures of this era was Abdur Rahim Khan-i-Khana, a distinguished Mughal noble who skillfully blended the poetic traditions of Bhakti and Iran, creating a lovely fusion of ideas and emotions. This convergence of influences extended beyond poetry alone; the Iranian and Hindi literary traditions merged, inspiring and influencing each other, and giving rise to a rich cultural expression.

Moreover, Tulsidas emerged as a highly influential Hindi poet during the medieval period, acclaimed for his magnum opus, the Ramcharitmanas. Through his masterful use of a Hindi dialect spoken in the eastern regions of Uttar Pradesh, near Banaras, Tulsidas showcased the beauty and power of the Hindi language, aligning deeply with the sentiments of the people.

In the domain of Marathi literature, figures like Eknath and Tukaram played critical roles in popularizing the Marathi language. Eknath boldly proclaimed that Marathi was as worthy as Sanskrit and Prakrit in conveying deep sentiments and divine knowledge. This sentiment was repeated by numerous regional language writers, affirming the confidence and significance of their respective languages. The writings of the Sikh Gurus breathed new life into Punjabi literature, adding further richness to the diverse literary landscape.

Akbar’s reign bore witness to remarkable literary growth, nurtured by his tolerant outlook. The works of Babur, such as the Tuzak-i-Baburi in Turki, and Gulbadan Begum’s Humayunnama, contributed to the extensive literary output of the period. The court of Akbar boasted a constellation of literary figures known as the Navratans (Nine Jewels), whose contributions were invaluable.

Furthermore, Abu’l Fazl, a historian, philosopher, and scholar, penned the Akbarnama and Ain-i-Akbari, while Badauni wrote the Muntakhab-ul-Tawarikh. Moreover, Nizam-ud-Din, a notable historian, made his mark with the Tabaqat-i-Akbari.

Aurangzeb’s reign, too, witnessed significant literary contributions. Notable works from this period include the Fatwa-i-Alamgiri, a comprehensive summary of Muslim law, and the revered writings of Khafi Khan, such as the Muntakhab-al Lubab and Bhimsen’s Nuskho-i-Dilkusha, which garnered great acclaim and recognition for their literary merit.

Tolerance

When it came to religious tolerance, the Mughals assumed a paramount role, leaving behind a legacy of remarkable peace and harmony that prevailed throughout Indian history until the arrival of British rule. Although many modern Hindu nationalists may voice dissenting opinions, the memory of Akbar’s rule conjures an era characterized by relatively peaceful coexistence among India’s diverse communities. For countless Indians, his reign stands as a shining model of religious pluralism and tolerance. Akbar’s strong understanding of Sufi practices and his dedication to fostering harmony led him to establish the policy of Sulh-i Kull, or Total Peace, aimed at promoting tolerance and understanding among people from varying backgrounds.

From Akbar’s reign onward, the Empire ushered in an era of unprecedented inclusivity with their visionary policy known as. The Mughals’ undying commitment to embracing all religions stood as an emblem of exceptional progressiveness, especially when contrasted against the backdrop of intolerance exhibited by other Muslim and Christian polities during the early modern era.

Employing a blend of political pragmatism and a genuine interest in Hindu traditions, Akbar ensured the preservation of religious freedom for all under his jurisdiction. Following the subjugation of Rajput tribes in Northern and Central India, he wholeheartedly respected their religious practices, guaranteeing their right to public prayer and sanctioning the construction and restoration of temples.

Total Peace truly became a resolute solution to a long-standing predicament engendered by the monotheistic prohibition on swearing oaths on non-biblical deities. Such a prohibition imposed severe limitations on Muslim rulers, impeding their ability to formalize peace treaties with their non-monotheistic counterparts and subjects. Yet, ingenious alternative mechanisms were ingeniously devised, enabling the taking of oaths and the establishment of solemn peace between parties adhering to both monotheistic and non-monotheistic beliefs.

Generally speaking, the Mughal emperors epitomized the ideals of peace, brotherhood, and secularism, consistently advocating for cultural unity and religious tolerance. Central to their approach was the practice of rawadari, a benevolent leniency that played an instrumental role in transforming India into a resplendent nation in every aspect.

Though briefly mentioned earlier, under the patronage of Akbar, numerous temples were erected, their grandeur shown in Kashi, Patna, and Mathura. Even Aurangzeb, despite his controversial legacy, generously extended grants and allocated land for the construction and upkeep of temples. The Mughal rulers upheld the faith of their people, endearing themselves by abstaining from interfering in matters of religion. Inter-religious harmony across India reached its zenith during the Mughal era, with exemplary instances such as Maratha emperor Shivaji, renowned for his military prowess, consistently refraining from invading mosques. In fact, when encountering a copy of the holy Qur’an after a conquest, he respectfully entrusted it to his Muslim soldiers, expressing the essence of mutual respect.

Akbar, a fervent champion of interfaith dialogue, created an atmosphere of intellectual exchange within his court at Fatehpur Sikri. This vibrant setting hosted spirited religious discussions, attracting theologians, poets, scholars, and philosophers from diverse faiths, including Christianity, Hinduism, Jainism, and Zoroastrianism. Akbar’s insatiable curiosity was renowned, with foreign visitors marveling at his extensive personal library, boasting a collection of over 24,000 volumes in languages such as Sanskrit, Iranian, Greek, Latin, Arabic, and various South Asian languages.

Within his own court, some individuals questioned Akbar’s decision to grant Hindus the freedom to practice their faith. Even his own son, Salim, reportedly asked why Akbar allowed Hindu ministers to utilize state funds for temple construction. Akbar’s response epitomized his inclusive mindset: “My son, I love my own religion… (but) the Hindu (minister) also loves his religion. If he wishes to contribute to his faith, who am I to hinder him? Does he not have the right to cherish that which is inherently his?”

Notably, Akbar actively participated in Hindu religious festivals and facilitated the translation of Hindu literature into Iranian for the benefit of his courtiers. The enduring bond between Akbar and his Hindu minister, Birbal, has had a lasting impact on Indian culture, with collections of their anecdotal exchanges remaining popular in the country. These accounts often incorporate ancient fables and now serve as moral-laden children’s stories.

Akbar’s admiration for Hindu devotional performances extended to Mirabai, the wife of Prince Boka Raj of Chittar. As a gesture of appreciation, Akbar is said to have placed a diamond necklace at the feet of Mirabai’s statue of the Hindu deity Krishna. Furthermore, Akbar embraced religious diversity through his marriages to several Hindu princesses, including Jodha Bai, Bikaner, and Jaisalmer, allowing them to maintain their faith. Remarkably, a Christian wife named Mary was even granted a personal chapel within one of Akbar’s palaces.

The pinnacle of Akbar’s deep interest in religion and his policy of tolerance was the establishment of Din-e-Ilahi, meaning God’s religion. Inspired by the concept of Wahdat al Wujud (Unity of Existence), initially developed by the Sufi mystic Ibn al-Arabi and later adopted by other Sufis, Akbar aimed to unite diverse beliefs and schools of thought. This ideology posits that all of creation is illusory, with God being the sole source of true reality. Through Din-e-Ilahi, Akbar sought to promote the understanding that all religions are interconnected and ultimately lead to the same ultimate truth — God. Hence, rather than being a conventional faith, Din-e-Ilahi served as an inclusive framework, seeking to identify the commonalities among different religions.

Technology

Last, but certainly not least, in the sphere of technological contributions, the Mughals were duly noted for having harnessed and mastered the power of gunpowder. It was this mastery of gunpowder and firearms that enabled their conquest of India and ensured their continued rule over the subcontinent. With remarkable finesse, the Mughal armies wielded soldier-carried firearms and cannons, unleashing them as field artillery to shatter their rival enemies and breach the fortress walls with remarkable precision.

The Mughal scientists, standing at the forefront of military technology innovation, delved fearlessly into the essence of explosives. They expertly crafted mines and pioneered the development of military rockets, which served a dual purpose — repelling charging elephants and igniting fires that illuminated the darkest of nights. Furthermore, their ingenuity extended to the design of new and advanced firearms, showcasing their brilliance and unrivaled dedication to progress.

During this shiny era, a notable invention emerged, forever altering the course of warfare. This revolutionary device, known as the Yarghu, was a portable cannon barrel cleaning mechanism, birthed from the ingenuity of Fathullah Shirazi — an esteemed engineer hailing from Iran. At the invitation of Sultan Ali Adil Shah of Bijapur, Fathullah Shirazi journeyed to India, eventually finding himself in the magnificent city of Agra, under the patronage of the visionary Akbar.

The Yarghu reflected the boundless possibilities of technological advancement, surpassing the limitations of its time. Remarkably, its operation required the strength of just a single ox, unveiling a balanced fusion of efficiency and power. This sophisticated machine featured an imposing eight-legged structure, crafted primarily from iron and steel. At its peak, an octagonal frame, likely composed of sturdy angle iron, stood resolute. Nestled between the rim and the center, a toothed wheel with robust spokes elegantly revolved around a central vertical shaft or axle, securely housed within a fortified casing embedded in the ground.

Encircling the hub and potentially extending below it, fixed bearings with eight sockets faced corresponding counterparts strategically positioned at the angles of the octagon. The detachable component of this extraordinary contraption consisted of eight meticulously fashioned bars. Each bar exhibited a pinion and two brush-rods of equal length firmly affixed to either side, forming unmatched craftsmanship. When the time came to cleanse the barrels, they were raised with utmost care and placed into the thoughtful sockets provided within the frame.

The fixed bearings, complexly interlocking with the teeth of the wheel, flawlessly engaged the teeth of the pinion, initiating a beautiful motion. As a sturdy bullock set the machine in graceful motion, the axle at its foundation rotated, propelling the wheel to life. The vertical movement of the wheel’s teeth, perfectly synchronized with the rotation of the pinion, prompted the brush-rods to traverse the innermost recesses of the barrels, diligently eradicating any impurities that dared to tarnish their brilliance.

Alongside the Yarghu, Fathullah Shirazi’s ingenuity permeated the realm of design, birthing other utilitarian devices that left an unerasable mark. Among his other notable inventions was the portable cannon, a marvel of engineering composed of detachable parts seamlessly screwed together or separated. This lightweight artillery piece bestowed upon its wielders a strategic advantage, as it could be effortlessly mounted on a nimble carriage and swiftly transported to pivotal positions like hilltops during expeditions. Its exceptional portability proved invaluable in dynamic and ever-changing circumstances. Even Emperor Akbar recognized its worth, possessing several of these cannons, and deploying them judiciously in situations where cumbersome heavy artillery would have faltered.

Moreover, Fathullah Shirazi’s expertise bore fruit in the creation of a groundbreaking masterpiece — the multi-barrel gun. This extraordinary weapon featured a series of barrels thoroughly cast or welded in an imposing row, enabling rapid and consecutive firing with a single match-cord. Perched upon a colossal cart, elegantly drawn by majestic elephants, this incredible gun unleashed its might, battering fortresses and dispersing enemy forces. With its revolutionary design and matchless firepower, it rightfully earned the distinguished title of the precursor to the modern machine gun.

Moreover, while the Mughals did not prioritize the development of a strong navy, a flourishing shipbuilding industry thrived under their reign, fostered by skilled craftsmen who propelled maritime technology to unprecedented heights. These master shipbuilders constructed vessels of unrivaled sophistication, surpassing their Ottoman, East Asian, and European counterparts in innovation. Notably, Mughal ships boasted flush decks — a design marvel that European nations would later emulate, with Britain among those greatly influenced by this groundbreaking development.

Part III: Resplendence Wanes — The Mughal Empire’s Decline:

As the 18th century dawned, the grand Mughal Empire, which had reigned supreme over the South Asian subcontinent, encompassing the modern nations of India, Afghanistan, Bangladesh, and Pakistan, faced a precarious decline owing to two crucial developments.

At the forefront of these transformative developments, one could note the emergence of internal divisions that insidiously planted the seeds of dissent among rival factions, thereby challenging the very authority of the central government. This unsettling situation cast a looming shadow of uncertainty over the empire’s once unshakeable stability. Simultaneously, the irresistible draw of the Mughal Empire’s bountiful wealth attracted European merchants and governments alike, enticing them to actively seek opportunities to partake in its opulence and splendor.

However, the convergence of these momentous factors, occurring around 1750, had already plunged the Mughal rulers into a deep crisis that shook the very foundation of their reign. Unfortunately, the agents of these European powers played a significant role in sowing political strife, exacerbating an already dire situation. Although the Mughal Empire would technically endure until 1858, it was during this critical juncture that its destiny hung precariously in the balance, beset by internal discord and external intrigue orchestrated by these opportunistic foreign actors.

To fathom the first underlying cause, we must cast our gaze back to the initial 150 years of Mughal rule, during the reigns of Emperors Jahangir and Shah Jahan. In this period, the nobles of the empire witnessed a steady rise in affluence, augmented by expanding armies, and emboldened to challenge the feeble center of power in Delhi. However, as the 18th century unfolded, the Mughal state encountered a challenging obstacle to its territorial expansion.

Depleting their land resources was akin to draining their coffers, for the allocation of land served as a means to secure the loyalty of the empire’s military officials, the previously mentioned mansabdars. Meanwhile, these very mansabdars had amassed tremendous power, reminiscent of nurturing a tiger cub until it grows into a mighty beast weighing five hundred pounds, only to find oneself bereft of sustenance. The swelling ranks of nobles, bureaucrats, and military commanders instilled fear within the state, as some among them could now command vast armies numbering between 40,000 to 60,000 troops. Factions emerged, and the ensuing battles for the imperial throne engendered a perilous era of political instability.

Further exacerbating the empire’s decline were two additional tribulations: a waning sense of religious tolerance and an era marred by incessant warfare in the late 17th century. The sprawling Mughal Empire had long flourished, both economically and culturally, under the pragmatic and tolerant leadership of its past rulers. However, the ascension of Emperor Aurangzeb in 1658 marked a dramatic shift. A fervent devotee of religious and military zeal, Aurangzeb dedicated himself to territorial conquests, amassing mighty armies, violently suppressing rebellions, and ruthlessly punishing his enemies, irrespective of their faith. Tranquility became a rarity as millions perished in battle, while countless others succumbed to the perils of drought, plague, and famine during these turbulent times.

Yet, it would be an oversimplification to attribute the empire’s demise solely to Aurangzeb’s personal biases. As mentioned earlier, despite his fervor, he erected Hindu temples and appointed more Hindus to his bureaucracy than any preceding Mughal ruler. Hence, religious zealotry alone fails to elucidate the empire’s eventual decline, which would persist for another 150 years. Instead, we must trace the roots of this gradual downfall to the onerous costs of maintaining a medieval war state in a rapidly evolving era.

Alas, the tides of destiny conspired against the Mughals, for it was precisely during this period that an unabated onslaught of well-armed foreign powers set their sights on the empire’s dominions. The eighteenth century bore witness to an intense scramble for South Asian territories, as European powers, including the Dutch, French, and Portuguese, engaged in a fierce competition for influence. Yet, among these contenders, it was the British who emerged victorious, personified by the East India Company — a British private joint-stock trading company that soared to prominence in the heart of Bengal during the mid-1700s.

Initially content to operate within the Mughal bureaucracy, recognizing the emperor’s authority while amassing fortunes, the British East India Company gradually extended its grasp beyond Bengal’s borders. Their vision far transcended mere conquest; it sought a ceaseless expansion of its commercial empire. Employing cunning strategies, the Company forged alliances with local factions, capitalizing on the discontent harbored by rival European powers and disillusioned factions within the Mughal Empire. Through these masterful maneuvers, the British consistently outmaneuvered their European counterparts, securing their unassailable ascendency.

Yet, it was not only the Europeans who challenged the Mughal Empire’s supremacy. By 1750, neighboring Afghan, Uzbek, and Iranian states fiercely contested the empire’s dominion, unleashing assaults that matched thunder’s ferocity. In 1739, the Iranians under Nader Shah even laid claim to Delhi, briefly occupying the capital and seizing the legendary Peacock Throne, decked with resplendent gems. Simultaneously, internal divisions continued to plague the empire, as the ceaseless struggle for the throne devoured its finite resources, drained by an unquenchable thirst for warfare.

Regrettably, today, as India finds itself amid a new era, we witness the cherished legacies of enlightened rulers like Akbar being eclipsed and extinguished by the narrow-minded, prejudiced ideology of bigoted nationalists. This misguided perception seeks to erase the indelible contributions of Muslims and other minorities in India, propagating the fallacious notion that they are foreign interlopers undeserving of a place in the records of Indian history.

In doing so, this revisionist narrative conveniently overlooks the historical truth that Hindus and other religious minorities often occupied positions of authority within these dynasties, while the emperors themselves impeccably assimilated into Indian culture. Prior to the twilight of Mughal rule, India stood shining as a beacon of opulence and preeminence, reigning supreme as the wealthiest and most influential empire of the early modern era.

All images were sourced from Google Images.